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A Pedagogical Study of the Transi 

tions from Infancy to Childhood 

and from Childhood to Youth 



BY 

SISTER MARY ALMA. M. A. 

OF THE 

SISTERS OF SAINT DOMINIC. NEWBURGH, N. Y. 



A DISSERTATION 

Submitted to the Catholic Sisters College of the Catholic University 

of America in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements 

for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy 



WASHINGTON. D. C 
JANUARY. 1921 



A Pedagogical Study of the Transi 

tions from Infancy to Childhood 

and from Childhood to Youth 



BY 

SISTER MARY ALMA, M. A. 

OF THE 
SISTERS OF SAINT DOMINIC, NEWBURGH, N. Y. 



A DISSERTATION 

Submitted to the Catholic Sisters College of the Catholic University 

of America in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements 

for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy 



WASHINGTON, D. C, 
JANUARY, 1921 



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NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, INC., WASHINQTON, O. C- 



PREFACE 

Catholic and non-Catholic educators alike hold that one 
function of education is to prepare our boys and girls for 
citizenship. Since we live under a form of government vs^here 
any citizen may become the head of the community in which 
he lives, or sit in judgment on trangressors of the law, the 
grave necessity to pronounce a just judgment becomes appar- 
ent. A man's usefulness to the community depends less upon 
what he knows than upon what he does, and what he does 
depends less upon the intellect than upon the will.^ The train- 
ing of the will towards justice consequently underlies the 
making of a good citizen. The Catholic educator, however, 
knows that education has another function to perform ; to pre- 
pare our boys and girls for citizenship in the Kingdom of 
Heaven.^ In the light of this truth, we have an additional 
reason for developing will power. Comparatively few of our 
pupils will share in the deliberative or judicial functions of 
the State, yet all without exception must, from time to time, 
act toward their neighbors from motives based on justice and 
right, regardless of public opinion and unbiased by selfish 
interests. Success or failure in such a task depends on the 
will and may mean happiness or misery here and hereafter. 
The will, then, must be developed hand in hand with the in- 
tellect. We are not lacking standards, ineffectual as they 
often are, for measuring intellectual progress, but we have 
fewer means by which to measure the progress of the will 
toward justice. This study seeks to set forth such a standard. 

The writer wishes to acknowledge her indebtedness to the 
Very Reverend T. E. Shields, Ph.D., Dean of the Catholic 
Sisters College, under whose direction the investigation was 
conducted, for his unfailing helpfulness and encouragement. 
Gratitude is due in an especial manner to the Sisters in charge 
of the schools, whose generous cooperation in collecting data 
has made this investigation possible. 



'C/. Summa Theol. St. Thos., lU, Ilae, Q LVIII, A. 4. 
' Cath. Ency., N. Y., 1907, Pace, E. A. 



A PEDAGOGICAL STUDY OF THE TRANSITIONS FROM 

INFANCY TO CHILDHOOD AND FROM 

CHILDHOOD TO YOUTH 



CONTENTS 

Page 

Preliminary Statement 7 

Method and scope of the inquiry 7 

The Tests 9 

Directions for the conduct of the tests 10 

Description of the tests 11 

Chapter I. — Punishments affecting the body 12 

Corporal punishments 13 

Brutal punishments 30 

Chapter II. — Punishments affecting the feelings and the emotions 35 

Punishments entailing loss 35 

Punishments entailing restitution 39 

Punishments entailing shame 40 

Punishments entailing fear 44 

Chapter III. — The purposes actuating the subject 48 

An impulse 49 

No purpose 49 

An instinctive tendency to restore the balance destroyed 

by the offense 49 

A clearly defined purpose to be attained 59 

A desire to correct the offender 62 

A desire to be vindictive 66 

Conclusions 68 

Bibliography 69 

List of Tables 72 

List of Figures 74 



PEELIMINARY STATEMENT 

Method and Scope op the Inquiry 

The data presented were collected in. eight parochial schools 
in the dioceses of Newark, Trenton and New York. While the 
two thousand, one children of both sexes were drawn from 
twenty-three nationalities, more of the children were born of 
American parents than of any other nationality. . 

Only those acts which are the result of choice are acts of 
the will. Hemmed in, as the child so frequently is by routine, 
few opportunities are afforded for free acts; and such oppor- 
tunities, when afforded, are often lost through the influence 
of human respect, or when used, the teacher is unaware of 
the fact. We have sought in this inquiry to offer an oppor- 
tunity in which the child's own will, unhampered by external 
influences, but guided by his intellect, could be the motive 
force, and in which the teacher may have a chance to note the 
result. These children, ranging in age from five to fourteen, 
were tested at intervals of three weeks. The tests were de- 
signed to discover the different forms of punishment which 
the children would inflict for three different offenses, if they 
were in a position of authority to do so, together with their 
motives for inflicting these punishments. 

In fallen human nature there exists the instinct of retalia- 
tion, which impels man to inflict suffering for suffering, evil 
for evil. The youngest child is inclined to give tit for tat.' 
The highly developed Greek was not free from its influence 
as may be seen from the following lines from Eschylus :* 

And you, tremendous Destinies, whose power 
Is ratified by Jove, mark the firm course 
Of justice, and by that direct the event. 
Be the insults of the hostile tongue repaid 
With hostile insults: Justice calls aloud. 
Demanding vengeance ; let murd'rous blow 
Requite the murd'rous blow. The solemn voice, 
Requiring that oppressive force should feel 
Oppressive force, is sanctified by age. 



'Cf. Moral Phil., Rickaby, J., N. Y., 1908, p. 170. 
*Eschylus, Choephorae, 11. 336-344. 



8 A Pedagogical Study 

"The clear idea aud strong desire of vengeance, which nature 
aflfords, shows that there is such a thing as vengeance to be 
taken by someone: it does not warrant every form of ven- 
geance^ or allow it to be taken by every man for himself. It 
consecrates the principle of retribution, not every application 
of the principle."^ 

Before the time of Christ, the punishments inflicted were 
out of all proportion to the crimes committed. The following 
incident shows that "Woe to the Vanquished" was the goad 
that urged the warrior to victory. **It was a proud day for 
the Carthaginian general when he stood as master on the 
ground of Himera; enabled to fulfill the duty, and satisfy the 
exigencies, of revenge for his slain grandfather. Tragical 
indeed was the consummation of this long cherished purpose. 
. . . All the male captives, 3,000 in number, were conveyed 
to the precise spot where Hamilkar had been slain, and 
there put to death with indignity, as an expiatory satis- 
faction to his lost honor. No man can read the account of 
this wholesale massacre without horror and repugnance. Yet 
we cannot doubt, that among all the acts of Hannibal's life, 
this was the one in which he most gloried ; that it realized in 
the most complete and emphatic manner, his concurrent aspi- 
rations of filial sentiment, religious obligation, and honor as a 
patriot; that to show mercy would have been regarded as a 
mean dereliction of these esteemed impulses. . . . Doubtless, 
the feelings of Hannibal were cordially shared, and the pleni- 
tude of his revenge envied, by the army around him."^ 

Since offenses differ objectively in the matter of the offense, 
which may be grave or light and subjectively in the degree of 
knowledge, advertance and will with which the offender throws 
himself into the act, distributive justice requires that the 
punishment meted out be in proportion to the gravity of the 
offense committed. In proportion as Christianity makes its 
influence on fallen human nature felt, we find the instinct of 
vindictiveness yielding to the nobler impulses of justice and 
mercy. The desire for revenge of the pagan conquerors gives 



"Rickaby, J., op. cit., p. 173. St. Thos., Cont. Gent., Ill, 140, n. 
5., Ill, 144, nn. 8, 9. Plato, Rep. Jowett. Oxford, 1908 Vol. I, 380 B., 
Vol. II, 615 A. Plato, The Dialogues, Jowett, B., N. Y., 1893. "Phaedo" 
113. Aristotle, Rhet. Buckley, London, 1883, I, X, 17. 

• Grote, G.. Hist., Greece. N. Y., 1879. Vol. X, Chap. 81, pp. 413-414. 



A Pedagogical Study 9 

way to the more just sentences of the Christian judge. In like 
manner as the child passes from the control of instinct to that 
of reason and emotion, we maj' expect to see his idea of justice 
undergo a change. Our inquiry seeks to determine the stages 
in the development of this virtue, together with the changes in 
the purposes, which the child has in punishing as he passes 
from infancy to childhood and from childhood to youth. 

The investigation then divides naturally into two parts. In 
the first part we have sought to determine (a) whether the 
severity of the punishments inflicted is increased or diminished 
according as the instincts, the reason or the emotions are the 
controlling power, (b) the ages at which these changes in the 
character of the punishments take place, (c) the extent to 
which sex, heredity and the reaction to the suggestions of 
others have afiPected the results. In the second part we have 
sought to determine (a) whether the children tested are ruled 
by an impulse to punish the offender, (b) whether this 
impulse, if present, is replaced by a more or less clearly 
defined purpose to be attained by the punishment inflicted, (c) 
at what age this transition takes place. The evidence which 
we submit shows the varying relations between the punish- 
ment inflicted and the offense committed, together with the 
motives prompting the infliction of each punishment. 

Tests 

Copies of the following stories were sent to the teachers 
of the schools in which the tests were carried on, together with 
the following explicit directions as to the conduct of the test. 

Story I 

A mother gave her little girl a box of paints. One day 
while the mother was out the little girl painted all the parlor 
chairs. What would you do to the little girl if you were 
her mother? 

Story II 

A little boy was writing a test. He knew all the answers 
but one. He copied his neighbor's answer when he thought 
the teacher was not looking. What would you do to that 
boy if you were his teacher? 



10 A Pedagogical Study 

Story III 
The owner of an orchard was anxious to secure all the 
fruit on a certain tree. He had always allowed the boys all 
the fruit they wanted. He asked them to spare the fruit of 
this tree. John took this fruit too. If you were the owner 
of the orchard, what would you do to John? 

DIRECTIONS FOR THE CONDUCT OF THE TESTS 

1. In the regular language period and in the usual way bring 
out the idea of purpose in doing a thing. 

2. After an interval of two or three days, during which 
time this knowledge may be expressed in various ways, read 
the first story to the language class. 

3. Direct each child to write in two complete English sen- 
tences what punishment he would give and why he would give 
that particular punishment. 

4. After intervals of three weeks each repeat the exercise 
using the second and third stories. 

5. Papers are to be retained by the teachers after each test. 

6. At a convenient time after the last test, direct each child 
to write on a separate sheet of paper the following facts: 
name, age, grade, class rank, birthplace of the father, the 
child's birthplace, the punishment he most often receives, the 
punishment he most dreads, the things he fears. 

(Note) The teacher will please fill in the item regarding 
class rank by indicating whether the child is above grade, 
below grade or in the proper grade by means of the letters A, 
B, or P, respectively. 

7. The four papers belonging to each child are to be fastened 
together. The papers belonging to the boys and to the girls of 
each grade are to be put in separate bundles. These bundles 
together with the reports from the teachers of the lower grades 
are to be forwarded to the writer. 

8. Where the children are unable to express themselves in 
writing, the teachers are asked to test each child separately, 
orally and alone and record the answers for him. It will 
be noted that every effort was made to keep the child from 
feeling that he was being tested in anything except in Eng- 
lish composition. 



A Pedagogical Study 



11 



DESCRIPTION OF THE TESTS 

The story given for the first test shows clearly that the 
act was committed without the necessary knowledge, ad- 
vertence or will that would make the offense grave from a 
subjective point of view. ''While the mother was out" does 
not tell that the little girl painted the chairs because the 
mother was out, but when she was out. The central idea is 
that she painted the chairs because she had no one to tell 
her not to do so. The child tested has not to decide regarding 
the gravity of the offense, from a subjective point of view, 
he might, however, take for granted that the damage was 
considerable. In like manner, the story given for the second 
test requires the child to decide whether the matter of the 
offense be grave or light, but from the expression, "While 
the teacher was not looking," it is clear that the offense was 
committed with at least some knowledge of the evil. In the 
third story, the offense might be grave or light, objectively, 
according to the purpose the owner had in Having the fruit, 
but obviously the offender threw himself into the act with 
such a degree of knowledge, advertence and will as to make 
the offense grave from a subjective point of view. In the 
light of these conditions, distributive justice would require 
that the second and third offenders would be more severely 
dealt with than the first offender. The evidence, however, 
shows that such is not the case. The subjective aspect of 
the offense has been largely disregarded while the objective 
consideration has been in terms of material loss. 



Table I. — 


Showing the Distribution of 


Answers 


Received. 






5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


Total 






Boys test I 


so 

49 
50 
149 

52 
52 
52 
156 
303 


105 
103 
105 
313 

119 
119 
119 
357 
670 


101 
101 
100 
302 

100 
102 
102 
304 
606 


115 
113 
111 
339 

116 
116 
112 
344 
683 


103 
101 
103 
307 

117 
116 
117 
350 
657 


126 
123 
124 
373 

109 
106 
106 
321 
694 


116 
116 

113 
345 

111 
111 
109 
331 
676 


106 
106 
103 
315 

101 
102 
100 
303 
618 


111 

109 
110 
330 

127 
130 
128 
385 
715 


54 

54 

52 

160 

62 
63 
61 
186 
346 


987 




975 


Boys test III 


971 
2,933 


Girls test I 


1,014 


Girls test II 


1,017 


Girls test III 

Girls total 


1,006 
3,037 


Total 


5,970 







The above table shows the number of atiswers received from boys and girls frorn 5 to 14 
years of age on each test, the total number of answers rtceived from boys and from girls on all 
the tests, and the total number of answers received from children of both sexes on all three tests. 



CHAPTER I 

Punishments Affecting the Body 

An examination of the evidence relative to the punishments 
which the children would inflict shows that these may be 
roughly divided into two general classes: (A) Punishments 
affecting the body, (B) Punishments affecting the feelings 
and the emotions. Under the punishments affecting the body, 
we have included the milder forms of Corporal Punishment, 
such as, whip him, strap him and similar expressions, together 
with the more severe Brutal Punishments, such as, kill him, 
pull his ear out, chop his hands off and other forms equally 
cruel. Under the punishments affecting the feelings and the 
emotions, we have classed punishments entailing (a) some 
loss on the part of the offender, such as, take the paints away 
from her, (b) some form of restitution, such as, make him 
pay for the apples, (c) a feeling of shame, such as, make him 
stand before the class, (d) a sense of fear, such as, lock him 
in a dark cellar. 

The punishments which the very young children would 
inflict were remarkably severe as compared with the punish- 
ments which the older children would inflict. We have ex- 
amined and classified the evidence at our disposal with a view 
to throwing some light upon the factors entering into this 
softening of the child's attitude. Special attention was de- 
voted to the influence of age, sex, heredity and environment. 

Table II. — Showing Percentage of Children Inflicting Corporal 
Punishments. 



Age in Years 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


Boys test I 

Boys test II 

Boys test III 

Boys Average . . 

Girls test I 

Giris test II 

Girls test III 

Girls Average.. . 


72.0 
51.0 
36.0 
53.0 

86.5 
78.8 
32.7 
66.0 


77.1 
54.3 
42.8 
58.0 

75.6 
57.1 
49.5 
60.7 


67.3 
43.5 
37.0 
49.0 

71.0 
46.0 
34.3 
50.3 


61.7 
32.7 
22.5 
39.0 

62.0 
26.7 
18.8 
36.3 


59.2 
30.6 
16.5 
35.5 

70.0 
27.5 
19.6 
39.1 


61.9 
25.2 
20.9 
36.1 

62.3 
28.3 
27.3 
39.2 


52.5 
12.9 
14.1 
26.6 

53.1 
17.1 
23.8 
31.4 


42.4 
19.8 
13.5 
25.3 

40.5 
16.6 
14.0 
23.7 


30.6 

9.1 

10.9 

16.8 

25.1 

6.9 

10.1 

14.0 


18.5 
3.7 
3.8 
8.7 

12.9 
4.7 
4.9 
7.5 



The above table shows the percentage of corporal punishments inflicted by boys and girls 
from 5 to 14 years of age on each test and the average percentage reported on the three tests. 

12 



A Pedagogical Study 



13 



CORPORAL PUNISHMENTS 

From the above table it will be seen that without a single 
exception a greater percentage of the children would inflict a 
Corporal Punishment for the first offense than for the second; 
and from five to ten, inclusive, and at twelve years, a greater 
percentage would inflict a Corporal Punishment for the second 
offense than for the third, but at eleven, at thirteen and at 
fourteen years a greater percentage would inflict a Corporal 
Punishment for the third offense than for the second. 

Table III. — Comparison of Tests I and II; I and III; II and 
III, as to the Percentage of Corporal Punishments Inflicted. 





5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 






Boys Comp. I & II 

Boys Comp. I & III 

Boys Comp. II & III 

Girls Comp. I&II 


29.1 
50.0 
29.4 

7.0 
62.0 
59.0 


29.5 

44.5 
21.1 

24.4 
34.5 
13.3 


35.0 
45.0 
14.0 

35.0 
51.0 
25.0 


47.0 
63.0 
31.0 

56.0 
69.0 
29.0 


50.0 

72.1 
46.0 

60.0 
72.0 
28.0 


59.2 
66.2 
17.0 

54.5 

56.0 

3.5 


75.4 
73.1 
*9.0 

67.0 

55.0 

*39.0 


53.3 
68.1 
31.8 

59.0 
65.0 
15.0 


70.2 

64.3 

*16.5 

72.5 

59.7 

*46.0 


80.0 
79.0 

*2.7 

63.0 


Girls Comp. I & III 

Girls Comp. II & III 


62.0 
*4.0 



The above table shows (1) the rate of decrease in the percentage of corporal punishments 
reported by iDoys and girls from five to fourteen years of age on the second test as compared with 
the percentage reported on the first test, (2) the rate of decrease in the percentage of corporal 
punishments reported on the third test as compared with the percentage reported on the first 
test, (3) the rate of decrease or increase in the percentage of corporal punishments reported on 
the third test as compared with the percentage reported on the second test. The * indicates 
the ages at which there is an increase in the percentage of corporal punishments reported on 
the third test as compared with the second test. 

Table III shows that the decrease in Corporal Punishment 
inflicted by the boys at five for the second offense is 29.1 
per cent of the rate for the first offense. This leniency toward 
the offender in the second test becomes more and more marked 
until the eleventh year, when the decrease in the rate of Cor- 
poral Punishment inflicted is 75.4 per cent of the rate for the 
first offense at the same age. At twelve this reduction in 
favor of the second offender is lowered to 53.3 per cent fol- 
lowed at thirteen by 70.2 per cent of the rate for the first 
offense at the same age. At fourteen when the intellect is 
capable of throwing most light on the matter, we find a reduc- 
tion of 80 per cent. At five years the decrease in the rate of 
Corporal Punishment inflicted on the third offender is 50 
per cent of the rate inflicted on the first oft'ender at the same 
age. This rate of decrease in favor of the third offender varies 
from 44.5 per cent at six years to 79 per cent at fourteen. 

The leniency shown by the girls in favor of the offender in 
the second test varies from a reduction of 7 per cent of the 



14 



A Pedagogical Study 



rate for the first oflfense at five years to a reduction of 72.5 
per cent at thirteen and of G3 per cent at fourteen years, and 
in the third test from a reduction of 34.5 per cent of the rate 
for the first offense at six to one of 72 per cent at nine and 
62 per cent at fourteen in favor of the third offender. Here 



Per Cent 










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Fig. I. — Comparison of percentages of corporal punishment inflicted by boys from 5 to 14 
years of age, on Tests I, II, III. 

we find a slight difference between the evidence presented 
by the boys- and that presented by the girls. The rate of reduc- 
tion in the number of Corporal Punishments inflicted by the 
boys on the second offender continues to increase from five 



A Pedagogical Study 



15 



to fourteen with a single interruption at twelve. The girls 
show three interruptions, at ten, at twelve and at fourteen. 
The boys do not show as uniform a rate of reduction in favor 
of the third offender as compared with the first as they showed 
in favor of the second offender as compared with the first, while 



Percent 
■TOO 



90 



Ft g u,i^a IT 



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6. 9. JO 71 

Age irtYbcz-rs 



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Fig. II. — Comparison of percentages of corporal punishment inflicted by girls from 5 to 14 
years of age, on Tests I, II, III. 

the girls show substantially the same interruptions in the 
rate of reduction in favor of the third offender as compared 
with the first, as they showed in favor of the second offender 
as compared with the first. Our evidence does not show 
any characteristic difference in the ability of either sex to 



16 A Pedagogical Study 

deteriniue the gravity of the offense and neither seems to 
possess it in any marked degree. Furthermore, as has been 
noted above, the third offense, subjectively considered, is 
more grievous than the second, yet a comparison of the rates 
of Corporal Punishment inflicted for these offenses, as shown 
in Table III, substantiates, for the most part, the evidence 
already presented from the comparison of the first and second 
and the first and third offenses respectively. The boys vary 
in leniency for the third offender in preference to the second, 
from a reduction of 29.4 per cent of the rate for the second 
offense at five years to 14 per cent at seven years, and from 
46 per cent at nine years to 17 per cent at ten, and to 31.8 per 
cent at twelve years. At eleven, at thirteen and at fourteen the 
leniency is in favor of the second offender in preference to the 
third. The girls at five show a leniency of 59 per cent of the 
rate for the second offense in favor of the third offender as 
against 29.4 per cent shown by the boys of the same age. This 
leniency fluctuates from a decrease of 13.3 per cent of the rate 
for the second offense at six, up to 29 per cent at eight years, 
and down to 3.5 per cent at ten years and up to 15 per cent 
at twelve. It will be noted also in this connection that the 
girls favor the second offender in preference to the third at 
the same ages that the boys favor him, i.e., at eleven, at thir- 
teen and at fourteen, but when the boys show a leniency of 
9 per cent, 16.5 per cent and 2.7 per cent respectively, the 
girls show a leniency of 39 per cent, 46 per cent and 4 per cent. 
The curve is in the same direction but much more pronounced. 
Although these tests were not all given in the same school, 
yet everywhere and in all three tests we find (Table IV) a 
larger percentage of boys giving Corporal Punishment at six 
than at five years, the advance being 7 per cent, 6.4 per cent and 
18.8 per cent, respectively, of the rate at five years, thus show- 
ing an average advance of 10.7 per cent of the rate at five years. 
After the sixth year we find a steady, althougli not a uniform, 
decrease in the rate of Corporal Punishment inflicted until the 
tenth year for the first and third offenses and until the twelfth 
year for the second offense. During the tenth year we find 
an increase of 4.5 per cent and of 26.6 per cent over the preced- 
ing year in the number of Corporal Punishments inflicted for 
the first and third offenses, respectively. After the tenth year 



A Pedagogical Study 17 

the percentage giving Corporal Punishment continues to de- 
crease for these same tests until the fourteenth year inclusive. 
The second test shows the remarkable increase in Corporal 
Punishments during the twelfth year of 53.3 per cent of the rate 
at eleven years. Although this increase occurs two years later 
than in the other tests, it is more pronounced than at any 
other time or in either of the other tests. The possibility 
of its being due to an increased ability to recognize the gravity 
of the offense is lessened by the fact that at thirteen and at 
fourteen we find the remarkable decrease of 54 per cent and of 
59.3 per cent from the rate at twelve and at thirteen years re- 
spectively. Our evidence thus far seems to point to a node 
at six, at ten and possibly at twelve for the boys. The average 
of the three tests emphasizes the two nodes at six and at ten 
but obscures the one at twelve. 

The evidence presented by the girls in each test and on the 
average shows but two nodes, each being one year in advance 
of the corresponding node shown by the boys. Another fact 
worthy of note in this connection is that in each test, as well 
as on the average, it seems to take from two to three years for 
the girls to make the second transition while the boys make 
this transition in one year. Our data do not show the time it 
takes the girls to make the first transition. 

Eliminating the element of sex we find two clearly defined 
transitional phases. The first one begins in the fifth year and 
extends to the seventh year. The second begins in the ninth 
and extends to the eleventh year. This, it will be noted, is 
somewhat different from the evidence presented in relation 
to the different sexes. At six the rate is the same as at five. 
At ton the increase over the rate of the preceding year is so 
slight, 1 per cent, that it can hardly be considered other than 
the first sign of the phase while at seven and eleven the 
decrease is so pronounced, 16.3 per cent and 23.2 per cent, 
respectively, that we might consider the transition to be 
effected. The decrease at seven, 16.3 per cent, is followed at 
eight by a decrease of 24 per cent and at nine by a decrease of 
only 0.7 per cent. At this point we find a preparation being 
made for the transitional phase that seems to be established 
at eleven. Again, the decrease of 23 per cent from the rate 
for the preceding year between ten and eleven becomes 15 per 



18 



A Pedagogical Study 



cent between eleven and twelve and 37 per cent between twelve 
and thirteen and 47 per cent between thirteen and fourteen. 
Thus we see the change between ten and eleven moderates 
the severity of the succeeding years, while the one between 
six and seven seems not to have the element of permanency 
that the second phase has. 

Considering only the average of the three tests (Table IV) 
we find that at six the boys show an increase in Corporal 
Punishment of 10.7 per cent of the rate at five years and at 
eleven there is a decrease of 26.3 per cent of the rate at ten 
years. This last fact might point to the node being at eleven 
rather than at ten since the average rate of increase at ten 
is l.G per cent of the rate at nine. In all probability, 
the transitional phase begins some time between nine and 
ten and ends some time between eleven and twelve. The 
decrease at twelve is only 4.8 per cent of the rate at eleven. 

Table IV. — Showing the Rate of Increase or of Decrease from Year 
to Year in the Percentage of Boys and Girls inflicting Corporal 
Punishment between 5 and 14 Years. 



Years 


5-6 


6-7 


7-8 


8-9 


9-10 


10-11 


11-12 


U-13 


13-14 




i 


Boys Test I 

Boys Test II... . 
Boys Test III.... 
Boys Average. . 

Girls Test I 

Girls Test II 

Girls Test III... 
Girls Average.. . 


7.0 

6.4 

18.8 

10.7 

-12.6 

-27.5 

51.3 

- 8.0 


-12.0 
-19.8 
-13.5 
-15.5 

- 6.0 
-19.4 
-30.7 
-17.1 


- 8.0 
-24.8 
-.^9.1 
-20.4 

-12.6 
-41.9 
-45.1 
-27.8 


- 4.0 

- 6.4 
-26.6 

- 8 9 

12.9 
2.9 
4.2 
7.7 


4.5 

-17.6 

26.6 

1.6 

-11.0 

2.9 

39.2 

.2 


-15.0 
-48.3 
-32.5 
-26.3 

-14.7 
-39.5 
-12.8 
-19.8 


-19.0 
53.3 

- 4.3 

- 4 8 

-23.7 

- 2.9 
-41.1 
-24.5 


-27.0 
-54.0 
-19.2 
-33.5 

-38.0 
-58.4 
-27.8 
-40.9 


-39.0 
-59.3 
-65.1 
-48 2 

-48.6 
-31.8 
-51.4 
-46.4 



The above table shows the rate of increase or decrease in the percentage of corporal punish- 
ments inflicted by boys and girls on each test and on the average of the three tests between the 
consecutive years from 5 to 14. The minus sign indicates a decrease in the rate, where no sign 
is used an increase is understood. 

The girls show a decrease at six of 8 per cent of the rate 
at five, thus substantiating the evidence previously given. 
This rate of decrease is more than doubled at seven, while at 
eight it is almost three and one-half times what it was at six. 
This is followed at nine by an increase of only 7.7 per cent, 
while in the following year the increase is even less, 0.2 per 
cent. Between ten and eleven they seem to have readjusted 
themselves. At eleven we find a decrease of 19.8 per cent 
from the rate at ten. This decrease is followed at twelve, 
at thirteen and at fourteen by the decrease of 24.5 per 
cent, 40.9 per cent and 4(3.4 per cent respectively of the 



A Pedagogical Study 19 

rates for the previous years. Here again the evidence tends 
to place the transitional phase for the girls one year ahead of 
that for the boys. 

We may conclude then that while sex modifies the tendency 
toward severity to some extent, it does not constitute an im- 
portant factor of variation. 

We have considered next the effect of heredity. We wish 
to determine whether or not the attendance of children of 
certain nationalities seems to account for the fluctuations in 
the percentage of Corporal Punishments inflicted, as noted 
in Table II. In studying the effect of heredity on the attitude 
of the child toward punishment, an effort was made to tabu- 
late the responses according to the different nationalities of 
the children tested. As was noted above, the children, with 
few exceptions, were born in this country. An attempt was 
made to ascertain the nationality of both parents but for 
the sake of simplicity the tabulation was confined to the na- 
tionality of the father, and in this case we found it necessary 
to assign a nationality to each man according to the country in 
which he was born. We are aware that error might occur 
from such a classification, arising from a mere accident of 
birth. For example, a man named Murphy born in England, 
Australia or Canada, would still retain his Irish tendencies. 
Nevertheless we have classified the data just as we received 
it and considered the man, not as Irish, but as English, 
Australian or Canadian as the case might be. However, such 
conditions were exceedingly rare, forming but a small part of 
one per cent. Any nation furnishing at least one per cent 
of the total number of boys or of girls present was classed 
under the head of that nation. Under the heading, ''Other 
Nationalities," we have placed those children constituting only 
fractional parts of one per cent of the total number present. 
The following nationalities were so included: Swedes, Bo- 
hemians, Swiss, Scotch, Danes, Greeks, Canadians, Austra- 
lians, Lithuanians and Alsatians. Table VII, compiled from 
Tables V and VI, shows the nationalities represented together 
with the rank of each as regards (1) the numbers present 
on each test as well as on the average, (2) the tendency of 
each toward Corporal Punishment. 
From Table II, we find that the boys on each test, but 



20 



A Pedagogical Study 



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Belgian J 

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Hollander .... 

Polish ( 

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A Pedagogical Study 21 

especially ou the third test, show a pronounced advance in the 
rate of Corporal Punishment inflicted at six over the rate at 
five. Of the fifty boys present at the first test (Tables V-VI, 
Part I), twenty-five were Americans, eighteen were Austrians, 
the remaining seven boys were of five different nationalities. 
We note too that the following nationalities were not repre- 
sented among the five year old bojs at any of these tests: 
Hugarians, Italians, Poles, English, Kussians and French. 
The American boys inflicted 58.3 per cent of all the Corporal 
Punishments of that year, the Austrians taking second place 
with 25 per cent of them, the remaining nationalities repre- 
sented inflicting 16.6 per cent of them. The vast majority 
(Part III) of the Americans present, 84 per cent of them, 
selected that form of punishment; a much smaller percentage 
of the Austrians, 50 per cent of them, while all of the Irish, 
Germans, Hollanders and other nationalities present inflicted 
Corporal Punishment, the Belgians alone not inflicting it. 
Although it is impossible to draw a conclusion from such 
conflicting evidence, founded on such inadequate data, yet 
it would seem that, if 21 out of 25 Americans, or 84 per 
cent of them, and 9 out of 18 Austrians, or 50 per cent of 
them, would inflict a Corporal Punishment, we have stronger, 
even though not conclusive, evidence of their tendency in that 
direction than when three out of three Irish present or 100 per 
cent of them, or when the only German present would inflict 
that form of punishment. 

At six all except the French are represented. The Americans 
and the Austrians furnish 40 per cent and 29.5 per cent re- 
spectively of all present; the Irish, 9.5 per cent; the Hun- 
garians, Poles and Hollanders, 3.8 per cent each ; the Germans, 
Belgians, Kussians and Italians, 1.9 per cent each ; the two re- 
maining nationalities 0.9 per cent each. We find (Part III) 
that 100 per cent of the Hungarians, Belgians, English, 
Italians and Other Nationalities present inflicted Corporal 
Punishment, 80 per cent of the Irish, 78.5 per cent of the 
Americans, 75 per cent each of the Poles and Hollanders, 70.9 
per cent of the Austrians, 50 per cent each of the Germans and 
Kussians inflicted that same form of punishment. Thus we 
see that at six the Americans take third place and the Austrians 



22 



A Pedagogical Study 



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A Pedagogical Study 23 

fifth place in the tendency toward Corporal Punishment. From 
this it would seem that the Hungarians, Italians, Belgians, 
English and Other Nationalities are most severe. However, 
it is necessary to eliminate the Hungarians, Italians and Eng- 
lish from this comparison, since they had no representatives in 
the fifth year test. This throws the burden of responsibility on 
the Belgians and those classed under Other Nationalities. But 
since the Belgians were represented at five by but one child and 
at six by but two, and Other Nationalities by only one at each 
age, it would seem that there are not sufficient data from which 
to draw a conclusion. We find that the Irish inflicted the next 
greatest percentage of Corporal Punishments; but when we 
consider that this nationality has three and one-third times 
as many representatives at six as at five and yet shows a 
decrease of 20 per cent at six from the rate at five, we can 
hardly attribute the responsibility for the rise in percentage 
at six to them. The same line of reasoning applies equally 
well to the Germans and to the Hollanders. We find that the 
Americans have 1.68 times as many representatives at six as at 
five yet there is a decrease not only at six but from five to 
fourteen, inclusive, in their rate of inflicting Corporal Punish- 
ment. Therefore, from the data at hand, the burden of respon- 
sibility must rest with the Austrians. From Table VII we see 
that the Americans rank first in order of numbers present on 
the first test and fourth in the rate inflicting Corporal Punish- 
ments. The Austrians have 1.72 times as many representatives 
at six as at five but the percentage inflicting Corporal Punish- 
ment at six is 1.41 times the percentage at five. We find also 
that the Austrians inflicted a greater percentage of Corporal 
Punishments at seven, at eight and at nine than at six. Not 
until ten, the age at which we find the second increase, is 
their rate less than at six. 

On the second test the following nationalities having 
representatives at five showed an increase in the rate of 
Corporal Punishments inflicted at six: Austrians, Irish, 
Germans and Hollanders. Since the Germans are represented 
by but two pupils at six and by only one at five, we have 
hardly sufficient data upon which to base a conclusion 
regarding them. The Irish have three and one-third times 
as many representatives at six as at five, yet their rate of 



24 A Pedagogical Study 

Corporal Punishments inflicted at six is only one and one-half 
times what it is at five. The Austrians have 1.76 times as many 
pupils present at six as at five and their rate of Corporal 
Punishments inflicted at six is 1.03 times what it is at five. 
Therefore, in the second test, the blame for the increase at six 
may be said to be shared between the Irish and the Austrians. 

On the third test the Americans, Austrians and Hollanders 
are the only nationalities having representatives at five who 
show an increase in the rate of Corporal Punishments inflicted 
at six. The number of Hollanders present both at five and at 
six is insufiicient for us to assume that they aided in any effec- 
tive way toward raising the rate at six. Therefore, we are 
forced to the conclusion that the responsibility rests with the 
Americans and the Austrians. From this it would seem that 
on all three tests and on the average the Austrians are 
responsible not only for the increase at six: in the first test 
but for the slight decrease from six to ten, and that they share 
the responsibility in the second and third tests, but for the 
increase at ten we must look elsewhere. 

On the first and third tests the Hungarians are represented 
at ten years by 43 children, the largest number of any single 
nationality at any time except the Americans at seven and at 
eight. Of these forty-three present on the first test, thirty-five 
or 81.3 per cent have inflicted Corporal Punishment, while 
the Austrians have inflicted the smallest percentage at ten 
since the sixth year. The only other nationalities inflicting 
a greater percentage of Corporal Punishment at ten than at 
nine are the Irish, English and Italians, represented by 6, 
3 and 3 children, respectively. With so few present, it is 
obvious that a difference of one Corporal Punishment would 
seriously affect the rate, while the same would not be true if 
a number as large as 43 were present. Therefore, we may 
assume that neither the Irish, English nor Italians are 
responsible for the increased rate at ten. Although the 
Hungarians (Table VII) have the fourth place on all the tests 
in numbers present, they rank first in the first test in the 
percentage inflicting Corporal Punishment. It may be, then, 
that the rise in the rate at ten is due to the presence of the 
Hungarian children at that age. On the third test the follow- 
ing nationalities seem to have helped to raise the rate at ten : 



A Pedagogical Study 



25 



Americans, Irish and Hungarians. The Irish had three and 
one-half times as many present at nine as at ten and they in- 
flicted twice as many Corporal Punishments at nine as at ten, 
yet the rate at ten is higher than at nine. This is probably due 
to the small number present at ten. The Americans, however, 
while they had not as many present at ten as at nine, they had 
almost as many, and they inflicted almost twice as many 

Table VII. 



Nationality 


Boys 


Girls 


Rank in 
Nos. Pres. 


Rank in 
Rate of C. P. 


Rank in 
Nos. Pres. 


Rank in 
Rate of C. P. 




1 
1 
1 
1 
2 
2 
2 
2 
3 
3 
3 
3 
4 
4 
4 
4 
5 
5 
S 
5 
6 
6 
6 
6 
7 
7 
7 
7 
8 
8 
8 
8 
9 
9 
10 
10 
10 

11 
11 
11 
11 

12 
12 
12 
13 
13 
13 
13 
12 
10 
9 
9 


4 
5 
2 
4 
2 
1 
8 
2 
11 
4 
3 
6 
1 
3 
4 
1 
8 
11 
9 
11 
12 
10 
12 
13 
9 
2 
5 
3 
7 
9 
6 
8 
5 
8 
10 
9 
3 
6 
11 
7 
12 
7 
13 
12 
10 
6 
1 
5 
6 
12 
7 
10 


1 
1 
1 
1 
2 
2 
2 
2 
3 
3 
3 
3 
4 
4 
4 
4 
5 
5 
5 
5 
10 
10 
10 
10 
7 
7 
7 
7 
11 
11 
11 
11 
6 
6 
6 
6 
13 
13 
13 
13 
9 
9 
9 
9 
12 
12 
12 
12 
8 
8 
8 
8 


7 


" II 


8 


" III 


8 




8 




3 


" II 


2 


" III 


6 




3 


Irish Test I 


9 


" II 


12 


" III 


10 




10 




1 


" li 


4 


" III 


3 




1 


Germans Test I 


10 


" II 


9 


" III 


12 




12 


Belgians Test I 


13 


■*" " II.:.:. 


13 


" III 


9 


Italians Test I : : . : 


13 

8 


" 11 


10 


" III 


5 




9 


Hollanders Test I 


2 


" II 


5 


" HI 


11 




4 


Polish Test I 


4 


" II 


1 


" III 


2 




2 


Russians Test I 


11 


" II 


6 


" III 


1 




7 


English Test I 


6 


" II 

" III 


7 
4 




5 


French Test I 


12 


" II 


3 


" III 


13 
11 


Other Nat. Test I 

II 


5 
11 


Ill 


7 




6 







The above table shows the nationalities representee" together with the rank of each nation - 
ality as regards (1) the numbers present on each last as well as on the average, (2) the 
tendency of each toward Corporal Punishment. 



26 A Pedagogical Study 

Corporal Punishments. Therefore the responsibility for the 
increase in the rate at ten on the third test probably rests 
with the Americans and the Hungarians. 

On the second test the increase in the rate giving Corporal 
Punishment is at twelve instead of at ten. Obviously, the 
following nationalities are not responsible for this increase, 
since their rate at twelve is less than their rate at eleven: 
Americans, Irish, Polish and Kussians. The Austrians, Hun- 
garians, Italians, Belgians and French show a higher rate at 
twelve than at eleven. Since only one more Italian and one 
more Belgian and the same number of French gave Corporal 
Punishment at twelve as at eleven, their increase in rate is 
probably due to the small number of each nationality present 
at twelve. This leaves the burden of responsibility at the door 
of either the Austrians or the Hungarians, or possibly both 
nationalities. The Hungarians are present at twelve, but in 
much smaller numbers than at ten. The Austrians have fewer 
representatives at twelve than at any other age except at four- 
teen, when they have but three. Nevertheless, the Hungarians 
and the Austrians seem to be responsible for the sudden in- 
crease, since six children of each nationality, the largest num- 
ber of any nationality represented, or 40 and 50 per cent, 
respectively, of the numbers present, gave this form of punish- 
ment. Moreover, when we consider the total number of each 
nationality present from five to fourteen, we find that the 
Austrians and the Hungarians (Table VFI) stand second an<l 
fourth, respectively, on all three tests and on the average ; but 
when we consider their rank in inflicting Corporal Punishment, 
the Austrians stand second, first, eighth and second on the first, 
second and third tests and on the average, respectively, while 
the Hungarians take first place on the first test and on the 
average and third and fourth places on the second and third 
tests, respectively. 

From the evidence at hand it would seem (1) that the boys 
responsible for the marked increase in the rate of Corporal 
Punishment inflicted at six on all three tests are those of 
Austrian fathers, the children of Irish and American fathers 
share the responsibility with them on the second and third 
tests, respectively, (2) that the increase in the rate at ten on 



Table V and VI, Part III. 



Age in Years 



Nationality. 



Tests 
II 



III 



Tests 
II 



III 



American boys 

Average 

American girls 

Average 

Austrian boys 

Average 

Austrian girls 

Average 

Irish boys 

Average 

Irish girls 

Average 

Hungarian boys 

Average 

Hungarian girls 

Average 

German boys 

Average 

German girls 

Average 

Belgian boys 

Average 

Belgian girls 

Average 

Italian boys 

Average 

Italian girls 

Average 

Hollander boys 

Average 

Hollander girls 

Average 

Polish boys 

Average 

Polish girls 

Average 

Russian boys 

Average ' 

Russian girls 

Average ' 

EngUsh boys 

Average .'..!!! 

English girls .\, , 

Average .!!!?!! 

French boys. ............. 

Average ...!!!!!]! 

French girls 

Average '. /, , _ ] 

Other Natirnaiities, boys (6) 

Average . 

Other Nationalities, girls (9) 
Average ... 



40.0 
50.0 
22.2 
00.0 



84.0 64.0 

62.6 
91.6 91.0 

77.7 
50.0 35.2 

35.8 
66.6 41.6 

36.0 
100.0 66.6 100.0 

88.8 
100.0 85.7 42.8 

76.1 
00.0 00.0 00.0 

00.0 
00.0 00.0 00.0 

00.0 
100.0 00.0 00.0 

33 3 
00.0 00[0 00.0 

00.0 
00.0 00.0 00.0 

00.0 
00.0 00.0 00.0 

00.0 
00.0 00.0 00.0 

00.0 
100.0 100.0 50.0 

83.3 
100.0 00.0 00.0 

33 3 

00.0 oo!o 00.0 

00.0 

00.0 00.0 00.0 

00.0 
100.0 66.6 00.0 

5.5.5 
00.0 00.0 00.0 

00.0 
00.0 00.0 00.0 

00.0 
00.0 00.0 00.0 

ou.o 

100.0 100.0 50.0 

83.3 
00.0 00.0 00.0 

00,0 
50.0 100.0 00.0 

50.0 

100.0 100.0 100.0 

100.0 

00.0 00.0 00.0 

00.0 



78.5 
85.1 
70.9 
59.4 



50.0 
44.0 
32.2 
48.6 
80.0 
87.5 



58.5 
62.4 
57.0 
62.0 
36.6 
46.7 
59.4 
55.9 
80.0 lUO.O 
86.6 

87.5 62.5 
79.1 

100.0 25.0 25.0 

50.0 
00.0 00,0 00.0 

00.0 
50.0 50,0 00.0 

33.3 
80.0 40.0 40.0 

53 3 
100.0 50.0 00.0 

50.0 
00.0 00.0 50.0 

16.6 
100.0 100.0 100.0 

100.0 

100.0 66.6 66.6 

77.7 

75.0 25.0 25.0 

41.6 

100.0 00.0 100.0 

66.6 

75.0 75.0 50.0 

66.6 

66 . 6 66 . 6 33 . 3 
55.5 

50.0 50.0 00.0 
33 3 

00.0 oo!o 00.0 

00.0 

100.0 100.0 00.0 

66.6 
100.0 100.0 00.0 

66.6 
00 00.0 00.0 

00.0 
100.0 100.0 00.0 

66.6 
100.0 00.0 00.0 

33 3 
75.0 50;o 75.0 

66.6 



Showing the Percentage af Corporal Punishments Infiicted. by Tests, Age, Sex, Nationality 



Tests 
II III 



70.0 46.0 42.7 

53.0 
70.7 38.0 40.0 

49 

75.0 58.3 25,0 
52 7 

77.7 94^4 33.3 

68.5 
55.5 33,3 44,4 

44,4 
58.3 25.0 25.0 

36.1 
00.0 00.0 00.0 

00.0 
00.0 00,0 00.0 

00.0 

57.1 42.8 42.8 
47.6 

60.0 60.0 20.0 
46.6 

33.3 00.0 00.0 
11.1 

25.0 00.0 25.0 

16.6 
SO.O 25.0 50.0 

41.6 
100.0 50.0 50.0 

66.6 
50.0 00.0 00.0 

16.6 
100,0 50,0 00.0 

50.0 
00.0 00.0 00,0 

00,0 

71.4 42.8 42.8 
52.3 

100,0 Oo!o 100,0 

66,6 
100.0 0.00 00.0 

33 3 

100.0 oo!o 00.0 

33.3 
100.0 6616 33.3 

66.6 
00.0 00,0 00,0 

00,0 
00.0 00,0 00.0 

00.0 
00.0 00.0 00.0 

00.0 
80.0 20.0 40.0 

46.6 



I 



Tests 
II 



III 



Tests 
II III 



56.8 
62.0 
72.7 
72.2 
71.4 
61.5 



32.1 
20.0 
13.6 
U.l 
00.0 
18.1 
00,0 



24.1 

37,7 

27,0 

36.0 

59.0 

48.4 

29.4 

37.7 

28.5 

33.3 
7.6 

29.8 
00.0 00.0 

00,0 
00.0 00,0 00,0 

00,0 
75.0 33.3 00.0 

36.1 
42.8 28. S 14.2 

28.5 

62.5 28,5 25.0 
38.6 

33.3 00.0 00.0 
11.1 

83.3 66.6 33.3 
61.1 

71.4 42.8 42.8 
52 3 

50.0 50.0 00,0 

33 3 

100.0 00.0 00.0 

33 3 

66.6 Oo!o 00.0 
22 2 

60,0 60!o 50.0 

56,6 
33.3 00.0 00.0 

11.1 
00 00,0 00.0 

00.0 
00.0 00.0 00.0 

00.0 
50.0 25.0 00.0 

25.0 
00 00.0 00.0 

00.0 
00 100.0 100.0 

66.6 
00 00.0 00.0 

00.0 
66.6 00.0 00.0 

22.2 



54.0 23,6 10.8 
29.4 

72.0 22.0 15.0 
36.0 

71.4 38.4 28.5 

46.3 
72.7 18.1 27.2 

39.0 

57.1 50.0 10.0 
42.0 

77.7 11.1 U.l 

.33.3 
00.0 00.0 00.0 

00.0 
66.6 50.0 29.1 

48.6 
60.0 20.0 20.0 

33 3 
60.0 20.0 00.0 

26,6 
100.0 00,0 00.0 

.33 3 
00.0 bolo 50.0 

16.6 
40.0 40,0 00.0 

26.6 
66.6 11.1 00.0 

25.9 
60.0 20.0 60.0 

46.6 
00.0 00.0 00.0 

00,0 
66.6 00,0 00.0 

22 2 
83.3 66^6 33.3 

61.1 
60.0 40,0 00.0 

33.3 
33.3 00.0 33.3 

22 2 
33.3 00.0 00.0 

11.1 
83.3 16.6 33.3 

44.4 
100.0 50,0 50,0 

66,6 
100.0 00,0 00.0 

33 3 
100.0 00.0 00.0 

33 3 

100.0 100,0 00.0 

66.6 



Tests 
II 



III 



Tests 
II 



III 



48.2 
44,0 
63,1 
71.4 
83.3 
75.0 



25.0 
19.0 
5.5 
42.8 
33.3 
25.0 



21,4 
31,7 
26.0 
30.0 
16.6 
28.4 
14.2 
42.8 
33.3 
50.0 
12.5 
37 5 
81.3 3810 34.8 

51.3 
82.7 34.4 34.4 

50.5 
50.0 16.6 00.0 

22 2 
66.6 16.6 16.6 

3.3 3 

14.2 0b;0 00.0 

4.7 

100.0 00.0 33.3 

44.4 
66.6 33.3 00.0 

33 3 
50,0 00.0 00.0 

16.6 
00.0 00.0 00 

00.0 
75.0 75.0 25.0 

58,3 
00,0 00,0 00,0 

00,0 
100.0 00.0 25.0 

41.6 
00.0 00.0 00.0 

00.0 
50.0 75.0 100.0 

75.0 
66.6 66.6 00.0 

44.4 

33.3 33.3 33.3 

33 3 

50.0 00,0 50.0 

33 ..3 
20.0 20!b 00.0 

13 3 
75.0 00!0 00.0 

25.0 
25.0 33.3 00.0 

19.4 



12.1 



45.7 11.4 

23 3 
42.0 14.0 20.0 

26.0 
65.0 15.0 10.5 

30.1 

83.3 33.3 16.6 
44.4 

30.7 15.3 7.6 

17.8 
56.2 00,0 18.7 

25.0 

76.4 17.4 23.5 
39.1 

94.4 38,8 38,8 
57,4 

62.5 00.0 25,0 
29.1 

14.2 28.5 14.2 
19.0 

25.0 00,0 00.0 

100.0 oo!o 00,0 

33 3 

00.0 00.0 00.0 

00,0 
00,0 00,0 50.0 

16.6 

33.3 00.0 00.0 
U.l 

33.3 33.3 00,0 
22 2 

66.6 33.3 00.0 
33 3 

25.0 OO.b 25.5 

16.6 

100.0 50.0 00,0 

50,0 
00,0 00.0 00.0 

00.0 
33.3 00.0 100.0 

44.4 
100.0 00,0 100.0 

66,6 

66.6 33.3 00.0 

33 .3 

00.0 oo'b 00.0 

00.0 

33.3 00.0 66.6 
33 3 

SO.O ob.O 33.3 
27.7 



Tests 
II 



III 



Tests 
II III 



Tests 
I II III 



10.0 
3.0 
8.3 
7.1 
25.0 
12.5 



38.7 9.6 

19 5 
18.0 12.0 

11.0 
37.7 50.0 

32,0 
50,0 7,1 

21,4 

23.5 11.7 
20,0 

50.0 12.5 
25.0 

66.6 40,0 00,0 
35.5 

72.7 16,6 16.6 
35.0 

20.0 00.0 00.0 

6,6 
50.0 00.0 00.0 

16,6 
40,0 20,0 00.0 

20,0 
33.3 00.0 33.3 

22.2 
50.0 33.3 33.3 

38.8 
00.0 00.0 100.0 

33,3 

75.0 25^0 50.0 
SO.O 

57.1 28.5 14.2 
33 3 

40.0 00.0 20.0 
20.0 



22.5 2.4 7.3 

10.2 
15.0 2.0 7.0 

8.0 
54.5 18,0 15.0 

29.5 
87.5 5.5 29.4 

39 2 

25.0 7.1 00.0 
10.1 

11.1 10.7 3.5 
8 4 

50,050.025,0 

41.6 
16.625.018.1 

20.0 
22.200.011.1 

U.l 
20.010,0 10.0 

13 3 
50.050.050.0 

.50.0 
50,000,000.0 

16.6 
20.000.000.0 

6.6 
00,000.0 00.0 

00.0 
00.0 00.0 00.0 

00.0 
100.000.000,0 

33 3 

00. 00 .0 00,0 
00.0 



00.0 50.0 50.0 00,000,000.0 



33.3 

100.0 OO.b 100.0 

66.6 

SO.O 50.0 00.0 

,33.3 

100.0 00.0 00.0 

33 3 

00.0 ob.O 00.0 

00.0 
50.0 50.0 00,0 

33 3 
50.0 00,0 SO.O 

33 3 
40,0 00.0 20.0 

20 
66.6 33.3 40.0 

27.7 



00 



17.3 00.0 4.5 

7.2 
3.0 00,0 0,0 
1,0 
33.3 00.0 0.0 

11. 1 
16.6 00.0 0.0 

5.5 
7.6 15.3 8.3 

10.4 

0.0 00.0 00.0 

00.0 

40.0 00.0 00.0 
13.3 

57.1 28.5 28.5 
.38.0 

100. 00.0 00,0 

33.3 
20,0 00.0 20,0 

13,3 
00,0 00.0 00.0 

00 
00,0 00.0 00.0 

00.0 
00.0 00.0 00.0 

00.0 
00.0 00.0 00,0 

00.0 
00,0 00,0 00.0 

00.0 
100.0 00.0 00.0 

.33.3 
00.0 00.0 00.0 

00.0 
00.0 00,0 00.0 

00,0 



00,000.0 00,0 00,0 00.0 00.0 



00.0 

00.000.000.0 

00.0 
00.000.000.0 

00.0 
00,000,033,3 

11,1 

00,000,066.6 

50.000.000.0 

16 6 
50.0 16.6 16.6 

27.7 
33.3 00.000.0 

11.1 



00.0 
00.0 00.0 00.0 

00.0 
00.0 00.0 00.0 

00.0 
00.0 00.0 00.0 

00.0 
00.0 00.0 00.0 

00.0 
00.0 00.0 00.0 

00.0 
00.0 00,0 00,0 

00,0 
00.0 100.000.0 

33.3 



The above table shows the percentage of corporal punishments inflicted on each test and on the average 
figures (6) and (9) after Other Nationalities indicate the number of nationalities included under the neaaing, 

(To face page 26) 



the average of the three tests by boys and girls from 5 to 14 years of age, of the different nationalities represented. The 



A Pedagogical Study 27 

the first test is due to the presence of boys of Hungarian 
fathers, on the third test they share the responsibility 
with boys of American fathers, and on the second test the 
Hungarians and Austrians seem to be responsible for the rise 
in the rate at twelve. 

Considering the evidence presented by the girls, we find the 
following nationalities present at five on the first test: Aus- 
trians, Americans, Irish, Italians, Polish, English and French. 
The last four are present in such small numbers it is im- 
possible to draw a conclusion. We will then consider the 
evidence furnished by the Americans, Austrians and Irish. 

91.6 per cent of the Americans, 66.6 per cent of the Aus- 
trians and 100 per cent of the Irish present inflicted Cor- 
poral Punishment on the first offender; 91 per cent, 41.6 per 
cent and 85.7 per cent, respectively, of the Americans, Aus- 
trians and Irish present inflicted Corporal Punishment on the 
second offender; 50 per cent and 42.8 per cent, respectively, 
of the Americans and Irish present inflicted Corporal Punish- 
ment on the third offender. It will be noted in this connec- 
tion that not one Austrian girl inflicted a Corporal Punish- 
ment at five on the third offender. Considering only the 
average of the three tests, we find that a greater percentage, 

77.7 per cent, of the American girls have inflicted Corporal 
Punishments at five than the girls of the other nationalities 
considered above. It is important to note here that although 
the Austrian girls have not inflicted a single Corporal Punish- 
ment at five on the third offender, yet at six with over three 
times as many present, the rate inflicting Corporal Punishment 
is almost as high as at five on the first test, much higher on the 
second than at five and 48.6 per cent on the third. The Amer- 
ican girls show on each test and on the average a lower rate at 
six than at five, the Irish show a lower rate on the first and 
second tests but higher on the third and on the average. When 
we consider the effect of nationality on the infliction of Brutal 
Punishments, we may find a substantial reason why the Aus- 
trian girls have not inflicted more Corporal Punishments at 
five than have the American and Irish girls. We are re- 
luctant from the data presented to leave the responsibility with 
either the American or Irish girls. 



28 A Pedagogical Study 

The next transitional phase that the evidence has estab- 
lished for the girls begins at nine and continues through the 
tenth year. At nine the Hollanders were not represented on 
any test. The following nationalities were represented by less 
than ten: Irish, Germans, Italians, Belgians, Polish, English, 
Kussians, French and Other Nationalities. The Americans, 
Austrians and Hungarians are represented by 40, 11 and 21, 
respectively. Since the Hungarian girls are represented at 
nine for the first time and then in such goodly numbers 
(Part I) and since 66.6 per cent, 50 per cent and 29.1 per cent 
of those present (Part III) have inflicted Corporal Punishment 
on the first, second and third tests, respectively, it is possible 
that at least a part of the responsibility for the increased rate 
at nine rests with them. Although the Irish have fewer girls 
present at nine than at eight, their rate of Corporal Punish- 
ment is higher at nine than at eight on the first and second 
tests and on the average but not on the third test. Again, 
since only nine girls are present at nine, there are not sufficient 
data upon which to base a conclusion regarding them. The 
same is true in regard to the nationalities mentioned above 
having less than ten girls present. The Americans show a 
higher rate on the first test only, but since the increase is 
greater on the first test than on either of the others, it is 
possible that they are responsible for the increase on the first 
test. Since the Austrians show such a slight increase, only 0.5 
per cent, on the first test with a marked decrease on the second 
test, obviously, they are not responsible for the increased rate 
on the first test or on the second test, yet, undoubtedly, together 
with the Hungarians, they are responsible for the increased 
rate on the third test. We may conclude, then, from the data at 
hand that the Hungarians and the Americans share the respon- 
sibility for the increased rate of Corporal Punishment at nine 
years on the first test ; the Hungarians and possibly the Irish on 
the second test ; the Hungarians and Austrians on the third test. 

Since the rate at ten (Table II) is less than at nine on the first 
test, but greater than at eight, and the rates on the second and 
third tests are greater than at nine, it will be necessary to de- 
termine what nationalities are responsible for this high rate. 



^ A Pedagogical Study 29 

Obviously, neither the Americans nor the Aiistrians are re- 
sponsible in the first test, since their rates are lower at ten 
than at nine or at eight. In all probability the blame rests 
with the Hungarians on the first test, while they share it 
with the Austrians on the third test. The combined effect of 
the Americans, Russians, French, English, Germans and Irish 
may have helped to raise the rate on the second test, since 
neither the Austrians nor Hungarians show a higher rate at 
ten than they show at nine or at'eight. 

Here again we see that nationality exerts practically the 
same efifect on girls as on boys, thus emphasizing the previous 
evidence showing that sex does not seem to affect the result 
substantially. 

There is still another factor that may have modified the 
evidence at hand, the reaction to the stimuli exerted by other 
members of the social group. Can we say the child is in- 
fluenced in the selection of the punishment he inflicts 
by the punishments he most frequently receives? If so, which 
sex is more influenced, or does sex form an important factor 
of variation? Since a greater number of Corporal Punish- 
ments were inflicted on the first test than on either of the 
other two, we will use the first test as the basis of comparison. 

At five exactly the same number of boys inflicted Corporal 
Punishment as received it, while only 48 per cent of the girls 
who inflicted that form of punishment reported having received 
it. At six 86 per cent of the boys who inflicted that form were 
accustomed to receive it. It has been shown (Table IV) that 
the increase in the rate of inflicting Corporal Punishments 
is 7 per cent of the rate inflicted at five, while the decrease in 
the rate receiving Corporal Punishments at six is 7.8 per cent 
of the rate received at five. The girls, on the other hand, show 
a decrease of 12.6 per cent of the rate at five in the rate of 
Corporal Punishments inflicted at six, while there is an in- 
crease of 3 per cent of the rate at five in the rate of Corporal 
Punishments received at six. Obviously, the suggestions re- 
ceived from parents do not seem to be responsible for the fluc- 
tuations (Table II) shown between five and six, neither for 
boys nor for girls. At nine years, only 87 per cent of the boys 
who were present on Test I reported on the question of punish- 



30 A Pedagogical Study 

inents most often received. Sixty-eight per cent of those who 
reported, or 59.1 per cent of the total number present, reported 
that they usually received some form of Corporal Punishment, 
while 59.2 per cent of the total number, reported that they 
would inflict a Corporal Punishment. Thus we see approxi- 
mately the same percentage would inflict Corporal Punishment 
as received it. At ten there is a 4.5 per cent increase in the 
tendency' toward inflicting Corporal Punishment accompanied 
by a 1.3 per cent increase in the rate receiving it. 

At eight years 111 out of 116 girls reported on the kind 
of punishment received. Of this number, 46.9 per cent re- 
ported that they usually received Corporal Punishment, while 
62 per cent of the total number, 116, would inflict it. At 
nine years, the point at which the girls show a decided in- 
crease, 12.9 per cent, in the rate of CoriDoral Punishments 
inflicted, we find that 50 per cent of the number reported, 
110 out of 117, were accustomed to receive a Corporal Punish- 
ment. Thus we see that at nine there is an increase of 4.9 
per cent of the rate received at eight as against an increase 
of 12.9 per cent of the rate inflicted at eight. The boys show 
an increase in the rate of Corporal Punishments inflicted at 
ten to be more than three times the increase in the rate received 
at the same age, while the girls show the increase in the rate 
inflicted at nine to be two and six-tenths times the increase in 
the rate received by them at the same age. From ten years and 
nine years on, the boys and girls, respectively, show a steady 
decrease both in the rate of Corporal Punishments received 
and in the rate inflicted. From five to eight, inclusive, the 
boys received either tlie same number or fewer punishments 
than they inflicted. With the single exception noted above, 
from nine to thirteen, when the reason is a strong controlling 
factor, they inflicted fewer Corporal Punishments than they 
received. It is evident then that the reason exerts a greater 
influence with the boys in the development of the sense of 
justice than with the girls. This is the first instance we have 
found which shows that sex is an important factor of variation. 

BRUTAL PUNISHMENTS 

The Corporal Punishments mentioned above seem not severe 
enough for certain children. They deemed the offenses suffi- 



A Pedagogical Study 



31 



ciently grave to merit such punishinents as, kill her, cut her 
hands off, chop her ears off, break her hands, throw stones at 
her head, almost kill her, give her nothing to eat for a week, 
throw her out of the house, cut his head off and make him 
kneel on coal or on sticks. Such ijunishments we have classi- 
fied as brutal. 



Table VIII. — Showing Percentage of Children Inflicting Brutal 
Punishments. 





S 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 






Boys Test I 


14.0 
4.0 
4.0 
7.3 

1.9 
1.9 
3.8 
2.5 


1.9 
3.8 
4.7 
3.4 

7.5 
3.3 
2.5 
4.4 


1.9 
0.9 

0.9 

2.0 


0.9 
0.9 


1.8 
1.8 
1.8 
1.8 



0.8 
0.8 
0.5 













0.8 



0.2 







0,8 



0.2 





















2.7 
0.9 










" II 


n 


" III 










Girls Test I 





" II 





" III 















The above table shows the percentage of brutal punishments inflicted by boys and girls 
from 5 to 14 years of age on each test and the average percentage reported on the three tests. 

From Table VIII it will be seen that at fi.ve years 14 per 
cent of the boys would inflict a Brutal Punishment in the 
first test as against 4 per cent on each of the other tests at the 
same age. At six and at seven the rate on the first test has 
decreased 86 per cent of the rate at five years, while at eight, 
the decrease is 87 per cent of the rate at five. At nine there 
is a decrease of 100 per cent. At ten and at eleven, it again 
appears, but only to be discontinued thereafter in the first 
test. In the second test the boys at six show but a slight 
decrease, 5 per cent of the rate at five years, in the rate giving 
Brutal Punishments. This, it will be noted, is unlike the evi- 
dence given in the case of Corporal Punishments where, in 
all three tests, a greater percentage gave Corporal Punish- 
ment at six than at five years. At seven the decrease is 76 
per cent of the rate at six. At eight, there is an increase in 
the rate giving Brutal Punishments. Unlike the first test, 
however, this form of punishment is entirely abandoned after 
this singular increase. In the third test, unlike the preceding 
ones, we find an increase at six, of 17.5 per cent of the rate at 
five. This is in accordance with the evidence previously ad- 
duced from the tests on Corporal Punishment. At seven we 



32 



A Pedagogical Study 



find no example of Brutal Punishment, while at eight the 
same tendency towards brutality is found as was shown in 
the other tests. We do not find another instance until the 
thirteenth year, when an increase of 50 per cent of the rate 
at eight is shown, this being a decrease of only 42 per cent 
of the rate at six, the time when most severity was shown in 
the third test. Considering an average of the three tests, 
our evidence shows the tendency towards undue severity to be 
strongest among boys at five years of age, with less marked 
tendencies at the sixth and the eighth years, and with periods 
of comparative calm at seven, at nine and thereafter. 

Unlike the evidence shown by the boys, a greater percentage 
of girls in the first and second tests would inflict Brutal 
Punishments at six years than at five. This is contrary to the 
evidence (Table II) shown by the girls in the tests on Corporal 
Punishment. On each of the three tests and on the 
average, the percentage of girls giving Brutal Punishments is, 
for the most part, lower than the corresponding percentage 
of boys. We do not find a single instance of Brutal Punish- 
ment inflicted by the girls after the eighth year, and even in 
the eighth year the rate is on the average only 27.7 per cent 
of the rate shown by the boys. The evidence adduced from 
these tests seems to place the period of greatest cruelty for 
the girls at six years, 64 per cent of these punishments being 
inflicted that year. The element of sex does not seem to 
afifect the evidence in any marked degree, as regards the ability 
to distinguish between the gravity of the offenses, in the 
tendency toward cruelty, nor in the periods in which it is 



Table IX.— 


-Showing Number of Children Inflicting Brutal Punishments. 




5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


u 


12 


13 


14 


Total 






Boys Test I 


7 
2 
2 

11 

1 

1 

2 

4 

15 


2 

4 

5 

11 

9 

4 

3 

16 

27 


2 
1 

3 

2 

1 
3 
6 


3 
2 
2 

7 


1 
1 
2 
9 














1 




1 






1 


1 




1 






1 
















3 
3 





3 














16 


•• " II 


9 


" " III 

Boys Total 


12 
37 


Girls " I 

" " II 

" " III 

Girls Total 


12 
6 
7 

25 


Total 


62 







The above table shows the number of children of each sex from 5 to 14 years of age who would 
inflict brutal punishments, together with the total number of brutal punishments inflicted. 



A Pedagogical Study 



33 



most used, both boys and girls discontinuing this form of 
punishment in the ninth year. 

Disregarding then for the time being the element of sex, 
we find that 48 Brutal Punishments, or 77.4 per cent of the 
total number (Table IX) were inflicted during the fifth, sixth 
and seventh years, inclusive. In the light of this fact, the 
greater number were inflicted before reason assumed control. 
Some other factor must have been the motive force. As these 
children were too young to write their answers, they were 
tested orally, separatel}^ and alone, thus reducing to a 
minimum the possibility of one answer being att'ected by any 
other answer. Moreover, these children represent six difl'erent 
schools, the Austrian and Hungarian children representing 
two schools. Since children are ruled largely by their instinc- 
tive and hereditary tendencies as well as by their immediate 
environment, we present data showing the nationality of the 
parents of these children. 

Of the 48 Brutal Punishments mentioned above, 93.7 per 
cent were inflicted by children of Austrian parents, 4.1 per 
cent were of Hungarian parents and 2.0 per cent were of 
Italian parents, whereas 26.4 per cent of all the children tested 
during the fifth, sixth and seventh years were of Austrian 



Table X. — Showing the Number of Children Inflicting Brutal 
Punishment. 



Age in Years 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


Tests 


1.2.3. 


1.2.3. 


1.2.3. 


1.2.3. 


1.2.3. 


1.2.3. 


1.2.3. 


1.2.3. 


1.2.3. 


1.2.3, 


Nat. Sex 










' 












Aust. Boys 

" Girls 

Amer. Boys 

'• Girls 

Irish Boys 

" Girls 

Hung. Boys 

■■ Girls 

Germ. Boys. 

" Girls 

Ital. Boys 

" Girls 

Scot. Boys 

" Girls 

Total Boys 

" GirU 


7.2.2. 
1.1.2. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0,0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0,0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0, 
7.2.2. 
1.1.2. 


2.2.5. 
9,4.3. 
0.0.0. 
0.0,0. 
0.0,0. 
0,0.0. 
0,2.0. 
0,0.0, 
0,0,0, 
0,0.0, 
0.0,0, 
0.0.0, 
0.0,0, 
0,0.0. 
2.4.5. 
9.4.3. 


1.1.0. 
2.0,1, 
0,0,0, 
0.0.0. 
0.0,0, 
0.0.0, 
0,0,0, 
0,0,0, 
0,0.0, 
0,0.0, 
1,0,0, 
0,0,0. 
0.0.0, 
0,0,0. 
2.1.0. 
2.0.1. 


2.2.2. 
0,1.1. 
0.0.0, 
0.0,0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0,0, 
0,0.0, 
0,0.0, 
0.0.0, 
0,0,0. 
1.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
3.2.2. 
0.1.1. 


0.0.0, 
0,0.0, 
0,0.0, 
0,0,0, 
0,0,0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0,0, 
0.0.0, 
0.0.0. 
0,0,0. 
0.0,0. 
0.0,0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 


0.0.0. 
0,0,0, 
0.0.0. 
0.0 0. 
0,0.0. 
0.0.0. 
1.0.0, 
0.0.0, 
0.0,0, 
0,0.0, 
0,0.0, 
0,0,0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
1.0.0. 
0.0.0. 


1.0.0. 
0,0.0, 
0,0.0. 
0.0,0, 
0,0,0. 
0.0.0, 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0,0.0. 
0.0,0, 
0,0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0,0, 
1.0.0. 
0.0.0. 


0,0.0, 
0,0.0, 
0,0.0. 
0.0,0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0, 
0.0.0. 
0.0,0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 


0.0,0, 
0,0,0, 
0,0,1, 
0.0,0. 
0.0.1, 
0,0,0. 
0.0.0, 
0.0.0. 
0.0.1. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0,0,0, 
0,0.0. 
0.0,0. 
3. 
0.0.0. 


0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0,0. 
0.0,0. 
0.0,0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 
0.0.0. 



The above table shows the number of boys and girls from 5 to 14 years of age of each nation- 
ality represented who would inflict a brutal punishment on each test and the total number of 
boys and the total number of girls of all the nationalities represented who would inflict a brutal 
punishment on each test. 



34 A Pedagogical Study 

parents, 0.7 per cent were of Hungarian parents and 2.4 per 
cent were of Italian parents. Of the 14 punishments inflicted 
from the eighth to the fourteenth years, inclusive, 64.2 per 
cent were by children of Austrian parents, 7.1 per cent each 
were of German, American, Irish, Hungarian and Scotch 
parents, whereas 12.9 per cent of the children tested were of 
Austrian parents, 5.7 per cent, 35.3 per cent, 12.1 per cent, 
12.6 per cent and 0.06 per cent, respectively, were of German, 
American, Irish, Hungarian and Scotch parents. It may be 
noted in this connection that the children of Austrian parents 
seem not only most given to Brutal Punishments, but they also 
select the most brutal forms of these punishments. 

Since no child tested reported having received a Brutal Pun- 
ishment, they were evidently not reacting on the suggestions 
of others. 




CHAPTER II 

Punishments Affecting the Feelings and the Emotions 
In addition to the punishments considered in Chapter I, 
the children tested have inflicted four other forms: Punish- 
ments entailing loss, restitution, shame and fear. Under the 
first heading, i. e., punishments entailing loss, we have in- 
cluded such punishments as, take the paints, the paper or 
the fruit away, give no more paints or fruit in the future, 
loss of class rank, privilege, food and play-time. Under the 
second heading, i. e., punishments entailing restitution, we 
have included such punishments as, wash off the paints, either 
do that task over or do another task, either pay for or give 
back the stolen fruit. Under the third heading, i.e., punish- 
ments entailing shame, we have included such punishments as 
always bring shame to the offender, as, standing, kneeling or 
wearing a fool's cap before a class and receiving a scolding. 
The last form of punishment was included under this heading 
because a large majority of the children reported that they 
dreaded a scolding because it made them feel ashamed. Under 
the fourth heading, i.e., punishments entailing fear, we have 
included such punishments as the children tested reported 
that they dreaded, such as, lock him in a dark place, send him 
to a jail or to a reform school. Although the children had never 
received the last mentioned forms of punishment, they had 
evidently been threatened with them. 

PUNISHMENTS ENTAILING LOSS 

It would seem that a punishment entailing a loss would 
be more in keeping with the offenses, especially the first, than 
either a Corporal or a Brutal Punishment would be, and we 
would expect to find a greater percentage of such punish- 
ments inflicted on the first offender. In the first test, how- 
ever, only 8 per cent of the boys five years old would inflict 
a punishment entailing loss. This low rate is 11 per cent and 
57 per cent, respectively, of tlie rates of Corporal and Brutal 
Punishments inflicted at the same age. From five to thirteen, 
inclusive, we find a continuous although not a uniform increase 
in the rate inflicting this form of punishment. At fourteen 
we find a slight decrease, 10.9 per cent less than at thirteen, 

35 



36 



A Pedagogical Study 



but only 0.6 per cent less than at twelve. This decrease may be 
accounted for by the fact that at fourteen a greater percentage 
of the boys than at any other age, i. e., 20.3 per cent, are in- 
clined toward either excusing the offender altogether or giving 



Per Cen t 
700 



90 



I^igrcLrG HE 



80 

70 

60 

* 50 

Uo 
OO 
20 
10 

o 

































































































































T< 


3S 


t 


T _ 












L 






























1 


T- 


-- 


— 


- 




























n 


I- 




































4Kd 


?rc 


zqr 


:3 - 




,._ 


— 


y 


































/- 

<» / 
































y 




/ 


— 


— 
























/ 






/ 


/ 


























/ 


/ 

/ 






/ 






















/ 




"■* 


/ 










y 


^ 
















, 




_ __ 













y 


/ 


\ 


k 














/'' 


// 


~ 


' -~ 


( 








/ 






\ 










^ 


4 


0' 


'' 








/ 














\ 




/ 

/ 




^ 




/ 








/ 
















^ 


-^"^ 


/ 


//- 


' 






^ 






















' 


— i- 


/:■' 




^ 


-^ 


























— ■ 









































































5 



7 S 9 10 11 

Acre LrxYGccrs 



IZ 



73 7^ 



Fig. hi. — Comparison of percentages of punishment entailing loss inCicted by boys from 5 to 
14 years of age on Tests I, II, III, and the average percentages reported on the three teats. 

him a mild reproof. On the second test, with a single ex- 
ception of the children eight years of age, there is a steady 
increase from five to fourteen years, inclusive, in the percent- 
age inflicting punishments entailing loss. At eight years, 
when we would expect reason to exert a greater control than 



A Pedagogical Study 



37 



before, we find a decrease of 16.3 per cent from the rate at seven. 
At the same age and on the same test there is a decrease in the 
percentage of Corporal Punishments inflicted, as well as in the 
percentage of punishments entailing fear. This is probably due, 



Percent 
700 



90 



30 
70 
60 
50 
UO 
30 
20 
10 
O 



5 



7 



^Ftg-uLre ZSZ' 

































































































































1 


'es 


t J 


r . 








































z 


r . 


— 





— 




























Ji 


I • 


.... 


.... 


■* **i 


-... 


— 




















Av 


er 


W' 


3 - 


— 


1 


'•/ 




































J 


, 


,-^ 
































// 




































fr 

y 




























/ 


V 

V 


s' 


/ 


r 


^ 


^ 




















.. 


""7 


/ 


,.'' 


V 




/ 
















/ 





..,^ 


y' 


' 


/ 


^ 


'-^ 


---' 




/ 
















/' 










^ 








/ 














/ 


•''^ 


> 


•v; 


— 




y 










/ 












/ 




y 


/ 


s 








_ 







^^ 










..^ 




f J 


^ 


y 


/ 


\ 




. 


/ 




















% 


/ 


y 


z' 






\ 


/ 




















'^'■ 


f 


y 
































' 





































8 



Aq, 



9 10 

e trCYecLTS 



n 



12, 73 /4 



Fig. IV. — Comparison of percentages of punishment entailing loss inflicted by girls from 5 to 
14 years of age on Tests I, II, III, and the average percentages reported on the three tests. 

in part at least, to the unusually high rate of increase, 117.3 per 
cent, in the percentage of punishments entailing shame. On 
the third test we find three interruptions in the rate of in- 
crease, at six, at ten and at twelve, while the average 
shows two interruptions, at six and at ten. (Fig. III.) On the 



38 



A Pedagogical Study 



first and second tests we find a very slight increase while on 
the third test there is a marked decrease between the ninth and 
the tenth year. This may be evidence of a nodal point between 
nine and ten. If so, it substantiates that presented in rela- 
tion to the tests on Corporal Punishment. 

Table XL — Showing the Percentage of Children Inflicting Punishments 

Entailing Loss. 



Age in Years. 



5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


8.0 


9.7 


11.8 


15.6 


20.5 


20.6 


30.1 


32.0 


42.3 


14.3 


19.4 


30.6 


25.6 


36.6 


37.4 


51.0 


57.5 


65.1 


24.0 


12.3 


18.0 


28.8 


46.6 


43.5 


54.8 


49.3 


64.5 


15.4 


13.8 


20.1 


23.3 


34.5 


33.8 


45.3 


46.2 


57.3 


3.8 


6.7 


13.0 


21.5 


11.1 


21.1 


21.6 


24.7 


44.8 


1.9 


15.1 


31.3 


28.4 


28.4 


33.9 


49.5 


43.1 


61.6 


17.3 


10.9 


23.5 


37.5 


35.0 


42.4 


41.2 


49.0 


73.4 


7.6 


10.9 


22.6 


29 1 


24.8 


32.4 


37.4 


38.9 


59.9 



14 



Boys Test I 

" II.... 
" III... 
Average . 



Girls Test I 

" II 

" III 

" Average. 



31.4 
66.6 
75.0 
57.6 

50.0 
63.4 
72.1 
61.8 



The above table shows the percentage of punishments entailing loss inflicted by boys and 
girls from 5 to 14 years of age on each test and the average percentage reported on the three 
tests. 

On the first test the girls show a more and more marked 
tendency as they advance in age from five to eight, inclusive, 
and from ten to fourteen, inclusive, to inflict a punishment 
entailing loss, the rate at fourteen being 13.1 times what 
it was at five. (Fig. IV.) The decrease at nine is partly ac- 
counted for by the great percentage of Corporal Punishments 
inflicted at that age. But the increase in the rate of Corporal 
Punishments inflicted at nine (Table IV) over the rate at 
eight is only 12.9 per cent while the decrease in punishments 
entailing loss is 48.3 per cent from the rate at eight (Table 
XII) or approximately four times this increase. More prob- 
ably it is due to the large increase, 56.3 per cent, in the punish- 

Table XII. — Showing the Rate of Increase or Decrease from Year to 
Year in the Percentage of Boys and Girls Inflicting Punishments 
Entailing Loss. 



Years , 



Boys Test I 

Boys Test II.... 

Boys Test III... 

Boys Average 

Girls Test I 

Girls Test II.... 

Girls Test III... 

Girls Average 



5-6 


6-7 


7-8 


8-9 


9-10 


10-11 


11-12 


12-13 
32.1 


21.2 


21.6 


32.2 


31.4 


0.4 


46.1 


6.3 


35.6 


57.7 


-16.3 


42.9 


2.1 


36.3 


12.7 


13.2 


-48.7 


46.6 


60.0 


61.8 


-6.6 


25.9 


-10,0 


30.8 


-10.3 


45.6 


15.9 


48.0 


-2.0 


34.0 


1.9 


24.0 


76.3 


94.0 


65 .3 


-48.3 


90.0 


0.4 


14.3 


81.3 


694.7 


107.2 


9.2 


0.0 


19.3 


46.0 


-12.9 


42.9 


-36.9 


115.5 


59.5 


-6.6 


21.1 


-2.8 


18.9 


49.7 


43.4 


107.3 


28.7 


-14.7 


30.6 


15.4 


4.0 


53.2 



13-14 

-25.7 

2.3 

16.2 

0.5 

11.6 

2.9 

-1.7 

3.1 



The above table shows the rate of increase or decrease in the percentage of punishments 
entailing loss inflicted by boys and girls on each test and on the average of the three tests 
between the consecutive years from 5 to 14. The minus sign indicates a decrease in the rate, 
where no sign is used an increase is understood. 



, A Pedagogical Study 39 

ments entailing shame (Table XVI). All three tests as well 
as the average show either a decrease between eight and nine 
or no change whatever. Here we have additional evidence that 
the girls make the transition one year before the boys. 

PUNISHMENTS ENTAILING RESTITUTION 

The offenses mentioned in the first and third tests are 
violations of commutative justice, therefore distributive 
justice requires that restitution be made to the offended party. 
It will be noted from Table XIII that neither boys nor girls, 
five years old, have any idea of the necessity of requiring 
restitution for the losses sustained. Morever, the idea is 
extremely vague until the twelfth j^ear with both sexes. At 
thirteen it is less prominent than at twelve. At fourteen the 
boys show an increase on the first test over the rate at twelve, 
but on the third test there is not a single example reported. 
On the other hand, 8.1 per cent of the girls inflicted this 
form of punishment on the third test but not one of them 
inflicted it on the first test. Although neither boys nor girls 
give evidence of a clearly defined idea of restitution at any 
time, yet it would seem that from eight to fourteen the idea 
is more clearly defined in the minds of the boys than of the 
girls. 

The second offence does not violate commutative justice, 
hence restitution is not required. However, we have con- 
sidered the punishment, writing the examination over or 
writing another examination as an example of restitution, 
although it is not restitution, since the child from whom he 
copied was not deprived of anything. It appears like restitu- 
tion only in the sense that the offender is restoring to himself 
the power that would have accrued to him from the successful 
working of the problem.*' Except at seven, at eight and 
at twelve a greater percentage of boys than of girls have 
required restitution on the second test. The boys give 
evidence, as shown from Table XIV, of a slight retardation 
in the development of the idea of restitution between the 
ninth and the tenth year, while the girls show this retardation 
between the eighth and the ninth year. Here we have fur- 
ther evidence that the boys are passing through a transitional 



8C/. Summa Theol. St. Thos., Ila, Ilae, Q LVIII, A. 2. 



40 



A Pedagogical Study 



phase between the ninth and the tenth year, the girls having 
passed through this phase the previous year. 

Table XIII. — Showing the Percentage of Children Inflicting Punish- 
ments Entailing Restitution. 



Age in Years. 



5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


00.0 


0.9 


0.0 


0.8 


3.9 


3.1 


3.4 


7.5 


5.4 


00.0 


5.8 


0.9 


2.6 


5.9 


7.3 


18.1 


5.6 


14.6 


00.0 


0.9 


0.0 


1.8 


4.8 


8.0 


7.0 


11.6 


5.4 


00.0 


2 5 


0.3 


1.7 


4 8 


6.1 


9.5 


8 2 


8.4 


00.0 


0.8 


1.0 


0.8 


0.8 


2.7 


00.0 


5.9 


3.9 


00.0 


3.3 


2.9 


9.4 


5.9 


6.5 


12.6 


11.7 


10.8 


00.0 


0.8 


0.0 


0.8 


3.4 


4.7 


2.7 


8.0 


4.6 


00.0 


16 


1.3 


3.6 


3.4 


4.6 


5.1 


8.5 


6.4 



14 



Boys Test I 

Boys Test II 

Boys Test III.. . 
Boys Average. 

Girls Test I 

Girls Test II 

Girls Test III.. . 
Girls Average. 



11.1 

14.8 

00.0 

8.6 

00.0 
9.5 
8.1 
5.8 



The above table shows the percentage of punishments entailing restitution inflicted by 
boys and girls from 5 to 14 years of age on each test and the average percentage reported on 
the three tests. 

Table XIV. — Showing the Rate of Increase or Decrease from Year to 
Year in the Percentage of Boys and Girls Inflicting Punishments 
Entailing Restitution. 



Years 5-6 


6-7 


7-8 


8-9 


9-10 


10-11 


11-12 


12-13 


13-14 


Boys Test I 






387.5 
126.9 
166.6 
182.3 

00.0 

-37.2 

325.0 

-8.3 


-20.5 
23.7 
66.6 
27.0 

237.5 
11.8 
38.2 
39.3 


9.6 

147.9 

-12.5 

55.7 

100.0 

90.9 

-42.5 

10 8 


120.5 

-69.0 

65.7 

-13.6 

-i'.i 

196.2 
66.6 


-28.0 

160.7 

-53.4 

2.4 

33.8 

-7.6 

-42.5 

-24.7 


105.5 


Boys Test II 


-84.4 


188.8 


1.3 


Boys Test III 




-100.0 






-88.0 

25.0 
-12.1 


466.6 

-20.0 
224.1 


2.3 


Girls Test I 




100.0 


Girls Test II 




12.0 


Girls Test III 




-76.0 






-18.7 


176.9 


-9.3 







The above table shows the rate of increase or decrease in the percentage of punishments 
entailing restitution inflicted by boys and girls on each test and on the average of the three 
tests between the consecutive years from 5 to 14. The minus sign indicates a decrease in 
the rate, where no sign is used an increase is understood. 

PUNISHMENTS ENTAILING SHAME 

Under this heading we have included such punishments 
as by their very nature entail shame, i. e., standing or kneeling 
before a class, wearing a fool's cap and being scolded. We 
have included the last mentioned form in this class of punish- 
ments because a large majority of the children reported tliat 
they dreaded being scolded because it made them feel ashamed. 
By far the greatest percentage of those who inflicted punish- 
ments entailing shame resorted to scolding. Morever, it is 
the only form of this class either boys or girls reported having 
received. Shame and fear affecting the deeper emotions more 
than punishments affecting the bod}" or the possessions of the 
individual represent a more refined form of cruelty ; yet, since 
most of the punishments inflicted under this heading consisted 
of scolding, it does not in all probability mean that the 
children who inflicted it displayed a spirit of cruelty. 



A Pedagogical Study 



41 



Table XV.- 



-Showing the Percentage of Children Inflicting Punishments 
Entailing Shame. 



Age in Years 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


Boys Test I 

Boys Test II 

Boys Test III 

Boys Average . . . 

Girls Test I 

Girls Test II 

Girls Test III 

Girls Average . . . 


4.0 
12.2 
18.0 
11.4 

0.0 
9.6 
11.5 
7.0 


4.7 
10.6 
11.4 

8.9 

3.3 
10.0 
8.4 
7.2 


7.9 
13.8 
5.0 
8.9 

6.0 
12.7 
8.8 
9.1 


13.0 
30.0 
12.6 
18 5 

8.7 
28.4 
20.5 
19.2 


10:7 

19.8 
16.5 
15.6 

13.6 
30.1 
29.0 
24.2 


6.3 
25.2 
10.4 
13.9 

9.1 
25.5 
13.2 
15.9 


10.3 
14.6 
13.2 
12.7 

14.4 
14.4 
22.0 
17.2 


10.3 

9.4 

14.5 

11.4 

17.8 
18.6 
17.0 
17.8 


14.4 
7.3 
5.4 
9.0 

13.3 

16.9 

9.3 

13.1 


12.9 

1.8 

15.3 

10.0 

22.5 

15.8 

8.1 

15.4 



Fig^are IT 



The above table shows the percentage of punishments entailing shame inflicted by boys 
and girls from 5 to 14 years of age on each test and the average percentage reported on the 
three tests. 

Percent 
JOO 



90 

80 
70 
60 

50 

Uo 

30 
20 

































































































































J 


ea 


't 


I 








































J. 


7 - 


— 


— 


- 




























1 


7 ■ 






- 


























J- 


IV<£ 


'J^C 


w 


o - 


— 


— 


- 












































































































































































































































































/ 
/ 


\ 

\ 
































/ 


/ 




\ 


.^ 


^^' 


\ 
















•,^ 








/ 
/ 


* 


^ 


."■•-< 


..^ 






\ 














^^ 


^-. 


.^ 


^ 


A 




C^,^ 




*■ 


•... 


— 




T 






^ 




y^ 






"^ 


>^ 


^y 








^ 


->^ 




^ 




'V 




-v 


-7' 




































^^ 





70 ■-'=^^^^ 



5 6 7 a 9 /O /I /Z 73 /4 

Age LTL Yeczrs 

Fio. v.— Comparison of percentages of punishment entailing shame inflicted by boys from 5 to 
14 years of age on Tests I, II, III, and the average percentages reported on the three tests. 



42 



A Pedagogical Study 



From the above table it will be seen that from five to eight, 
inclusive, the girls do not, for the most part, resort to punish- 
ments entailing shame as frequently as do the boys, but from 
nine to fourteen they resort to them more frequently. Although 
the boys show a higher rate on the average at five than the girls 
show at the same age, this is followed during the next two 



Percent 
700 



90 

80 
70 
60 
50 

30 
20 
10 



Figrizre JZI 

































































































































1 


'be 


't . 


r 










































1 


I - 


-- 


-- 


- 




























n 


T - 


































. 


4x^. 


?jrc 


2qt 


p - 


— 


— 


- 














































































































































































































































































•"* "^ 


*' 


^^•-%. 


•^ 




























/ 


/^ 


,/ 


N 




\ 




".^ 










/ 










/ 


0^ 








\n 


— r 






>« 


^ 


— 


-^ 


/ 


,^ 




_. 


."' 


/ 


y 


^^ 


^ 


^ 






^ 








:> 


^- 




— 




■j:- 


■*«-" 




-^ 








V 


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"■•- 


... 


^ 


^ 


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5 



7 3 9 70 n 
Aqe irhYeczrs 



12 13 74 



FiG.VI. — Comparison of perceulages of punishment entailing shame inflicled by girls from 5 to 
14 years of age on Tests I, II, III, and the average percentages reported on the three tests. 

years by a decrease in the rate for the boys, while the girls show 
a slight increase at six and a greater increase at seven, which 
brings them above the boys at that age. At nine the boys show 
on the average a decided decrease from the percentage at eight, 



A Pedagogical Study 



43 



the girls, on the other hand, show a more marked percentage of 
increase. The boys continue to inflict fewer punishments of 
this class until the fourteenth year, when there is an increase 
of 11.1 per cent of the rate for the preceding year. With the 
girls the increase and decrease alternate from nine to fourteen, 
except at twelve. Here, as in all the evidence previously 
presented, the boys show marks of a transitional node 
between nine and ten. It will be noted from Table XVI that 
the first instance of a decrease on all the tests occurs with the 
girls at ten. If this is the mark of a node, it is the first evidence 
we have seen that the boy made the transition before the girl. 

Table XVI. — Showing the Rate of Increase or Decrease from Year 
to Year in the Percentage of Boys and Girls Inflicting Punishments 
Entailing Shame. 



Years . 



Boys Test I 

Boys Test II. . . . 

Boys Test III... 

Boys Average. 



Girls Test I 

Girls Test II.... 

Girls Test III... 

Girls Average. 



5-6 

20.0 
-13.1 
-36.6 
-21.9 



4.1 

-26.9 

2.8 



6-7 

64.5 

30.1 

-56.1 

0.0 

81.8 

27.0 

4.7 

26.3 



7-8 

64 . .S 
117.3 
152.0 
107.8 

45.0 
123.6 
132.9 
110.9 



8-9 

-17.6 
-34.0 
30.9 
-15.6 

56.3 

5.9 

41.4 

26.0 



9-10 



-41.1 

27.2 

-36.9 

-10.8 

-33.0 
-15.2 
-20.0 
-34.2 



10-11 



63.4 

-42.0 

26.9 

-8.6 

58.2 

-43.5 

73.4 

8.1 



11-12 



0.0 
-35.6 

9.8 
-10.2 

23.6 

29.1 

-25.7 

3.4 



12-13 



39.8 
-22.3 
-62.7 
-21.0 



13-14 



-10.3 

-75.3 

183.3 

11.1 



-25.2 69.1 

-9.1 -6.5 

-45.2-12.9 

-26.4 17.5 



The above table shows the rate of increase or decrease in the percentage of punishments 
entailing shame inflicted by boys and girls on each test and on the average of the three tests 
between the consecutive years from 5 to 14. The minus sign indicates a decrease in the rate, 
where no sign is used an increase is understood. 



We now submit evidence showing how far these children 
react to the suggestions of others. From five to eight and 
from eleven to fourteen the boys show a steady increase in 
the number of scoldings they were accustomed to receive as 
punishments. During the ninth and tenth years, the period 
when they show a marked decrease in the number of such 
punishments which they inflicted, we find also a marked de- 
crease in the number they received. From eleven to fourteen, 
inclusive, they received a greater and greater percentage of 
such punishments, yet we do not find them inflicting a larger 
number of them at the same time. From five to fourteen the 
girls show a steady increase in the percentage of such punish- 
ments received. We cannot then say that they are reacting 
to the suggestions of others as much as the boys, neither can 
we say that reason affects their answers as much as it does 



u 



A Pedagogical Study 



those of the boys, 
do not show. 



What the factor of variation is our data 



PUNISHMENTS ENTAILING FEAR 

Under this heading we have included the following punish- 
ments; lock him in a dark cellar, send him to jail or to a 
reform school. On the first and second tests neither boys nor 
girls resort to any form of punishment entailing fear to any 
marked degree, and in the small percentage of cases inflicting 
it the first form is used. On the third test both boys and 
girls resort to punishments entailing fear more frequently 
than on the other tests, and usually it takes the second form. 
This may be accounted for by the fact that the Austrian school 
is located directly opposite the State Prison, It will be seen 
(Table VII) that the Austrians furnish the second largest 
number of children for these tests. From previous evidence 
this class of boys is remarkable for the severity in the punish- 
ments inflicted. 

Table XVII. — Showing the Percentage of Children Inflicting Punish- 
ments Entailing Fear. 



Age in Years 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


Boys Test I 


2.0 
10.2 
18.0 
10.0 

5.7 

5.7 

30.7 

14.0 


0.9 

2.9 

24.7 

9.5 

2.5 

2.5 

24.3 

9.7 


2.9 

5.9 

38.0 

15.2 

3.0 

1.9 

26.4 

10.4 


2.6 

2.6 

31.5 

12.2 

3.4 

5.1 

17.8 

8.7 


0.9 
2.9 
12.6 
5.4 

2.5 

4.3 

10.2 

5.6 


3.9 

1.6 

14.5 

6.6 

2.7 
2.8 
8.4 
4.6 


0.0 
0.0 
9.7 
3.2 

3.6 
1.8 
7.3 
4.2 


2.8 
0,0 
6,7 
3.1 

0.9 
0.0 
9.0 
3.3 


1.8 
0.0 
10.0 
3.9 

1.5 
0.0 
0.0 
0.5 


3.7 


Boys Test II 


0.0 


Boys Test III 

Boys Average 

Girls Test I 


3.8 
2.5 

1.6 


Girls Test II 


0.0 


Girls Test III 

Girls Average 


3.2 
1.6 



The above table shows the percentage of punishments entailing fear inflicted by boys and 
girls from 5 to 14 years of age on each test and the average percentage reported on the three 
tests. 

Table XVIII. — Showing the Rate of Increase or Decrease from Year 
to Year in the Percentage of Boys and Oirls Inflicting Punishments 
Entailing Fear. 



Years 


5-6 


6-7 


7-8 


8-9 


9-10 


10-11 


11-12 


12-13 


13-14 






Boys Test I 


-55.0 

-71.5 

37.2 

-5.0 

-56.1 
-56.1 
-20.8 
-30.7 


22.2 
103.4 
53.8 
60.0 

20.0 

-24.0 

8.6 

7.2 


-10.3 
-55.9 
-17.1 
-19.7 

13.3 

168.4 
-32.5 


-65.3 

11.5 

-60.0 

-55.7 

-26.4 
-15.6 
-42.6 


333.3 

-44.8 

15.0 

22.2 

8.0 
-34.8 
-17.6 
-17.8 


-100.0 

-100.0 

-33.1 

-51.5 

33.3 

-35.7 

-13.0 

-8.6 




-35.7 


105.5 


Boys Test II . 




Boys Test III 


-30.9 
-3.1 

-75.0 

-100.0 

23.2 

-21.4 


49.2 
25 8 

66.6 


-62.0 


Boys Average 

Girls Test I 


-35.8 

66.6 


Girls Test II 




Girls Test III 


-ioo.o 

-84.8 




Girls Average 


-16.3 


-35.6 


220.0 



The above table shows the rate of increase or decrease in the percentage of punishments 
entailing fear inflicted by boys and girls on each test and on the average of the three tests 
between the consecutive years from 5 to 14. The minus sign indicates a decrease in the rate, 
where no sign is used an increase is understood. 



PeKCffnt 
50 



^O 



30 



20 



JO 



O 



A Pedagogical Study 

Ftgrure I///' 



45 



y \Vi?r^XQ \ 



7e&t 




.U 



m ■ 



I 



5 



7 



Aq^ 



9 JO n iz 13 /4 



Fig. VII. — Comparison of percentages of punishment entailing fear inflicted by boys from 5 to 
14 years of age on Tests I, II, III, and the average percentages reported on the three tests. 



Percent 










Mgrure 


y//i 














c?c/ 




















7 


es 


t . 


T . 




















//r> 
























1 


7- 








- 






























L 


Z- 


.... 


.... 


.. 






"^n 


















^ 


\V6 


Tt 


zq 


a - 







— 








■'• 


•., 




















J 














on 












, 






































'"' 


•» 
























in 


■^ 


-...^^^ 












*,^ 
























'"- 












"^. 

























ro 






— 


'^ 








^^ 


^^ 




F 


^ 


f^ 


^, 


^ 




'^ 



a 9 70 71 
A^e iru Years 



7Z 



73 /4 



Fig. VIII. — Comparison of percentages of punishment entailing fear inflicted by girls from 5 to 
14 years of age on Tests I, II, III, and the average percentages reported on the three tests. 

On the first test from five to nine, inclusive, the girls inflict 
punishments entailing fear more often than the boys, but from 
ten to fourteen the boys inflict it more often than the girls 
except at eleven, when they do not resort to it at all. On the 



46 



A Pedagogical Study 



second test, unlike the first test, from five to eight, the girls in- 
flict it less often than the boys, but from eight to eleven, inclu- 
sive, they inflict it oftener than the boj^s. From eleven to 
fourteen, inclusive, the boys do not inflict it at all, and from 
twelve to fourteen, inclusive, the girls do not inflict it at all. 
On the third test, with the exceptions of the fifth and twelfth 
years, the boys inflict it more often than the girls. As no one 
reported receiving the second form of this punishment, they 
cannot be reacting to the suggestions of others, but in all 
probability they have been threatened with this form of punish- 
ment. Without exception every child who reported having 
received a punishment entailing fear reported also that he 
dreaded this form of punishment. Only seven boys and six- 
teen girls reported having received the first form. Obviously 
then they are not reacting to the suggestions of others. In 
the study of the data regarding the purposes for which these 
punishments were inflicted we shall see that the purpose plays 
an important part. 



Table XIX. — Shoioing the Percentage of Children Inflicting Punish- 
ments Affecting the Body. 



Age in years 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


Boys Test I 

Boys Test II 

Boys Test III 

Boys Average. . . 

Girls Test I 

Girls Test II 

Girls Test III 

Girls Average . . . 


86.0 
55.0 
40.0 
60.3 

88.4 
80.7 
36.5 
68.5 


79.0 
58.1 
47.5 
61 5 

83.1 
60.4 
52.0 
65.1 


69.2 
44.4 
37.0 
50,2 

73.0 
46.0 
35.2 
51.4 


64.3 
34.5 
24.3 
41.0 

62.0 
27.5 
20.4 
36.6 


59.2 
30.6 
16.5 
35.4 

70.0 
27.5 
19.6 
39.1 


62.6 
25.2 
20.9 
36.2 

62.3 
28.3 
27.3 
39.2 


53.3 
12.9 
14.1 
26.7 

53.1 
17.1 
23.8 
31.4 


42.4 
19.8 
13.5 
25.2 

40.5 
16.6 
14.0 
23.7 


30.6 

9 1 

13.6 

17.7 

25.1 

6.9 

10.1 

14.0 


18.5 
3.7 
3.8 
8.6 

12.9 

4.7 
4.9 

7.5 



The above table shows the percentage of punishments affecting the body inflicted by boys 
and girls from 5 to 14 years of age on each test and the average percentage reported on the 
three tests. 

Table XX. — Showing the Percentage of Children Inflicting Punish- 
ments Affecting the Feelings and the Emotions. 



Age in years 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


Boys Test I 

Boys Test II 

Boys Test III 

Boys Average. . . 

Girls Test I 

Girls Test II 

Girls Test III 

Girls Average . . . 


14.0 
36.7 
60.0 
36.9 

9.5 
17.2 
59.5 
28.7 


16.0 
38.7 
49.3 
34.6 

13.3 
30.9 
44.4 
29.5 


22.6 
51.2 
61.0 
44.9 

23.0 
48.8 
58.7 
43.5 


32.0 
60.8 
74.7 
55.8 

34.4 
71.3 
76.6 
60.7 


36.0 
65.2 
80.5 
60.5 

28.0 
68.7 
77.6 
58.1 


33.9 
71.5 
76.4 
60.6 

35.6 
68.8 
68.7 
57.7 


43.8 
83.7 
84.7 
70.7 

39.6 
78.3 
73.2 
63.7 


52.6 
72.5 
82.1 
69.0 

49.3 
73.4 
83.0 
68 5 


63.9 
87.0 
85.3 
78.7 

63.5 
89.3 
87.3 
80.0 


59.1 
83.2 
94.1 
78.8 

74.1 
88.7 
91.5 
84.7 



The above table shows the percentage of punishments affecting the feelings and the emotions 
inflicted by boys and girls from 5 to 14 years of age on each test and the average percentage 
reported on the three tests. 



A Pedagogical Study 



47 



Table XXI. — Showing the Rate of Increase or Decrease from Year 
to Year in the Percentage of Boys and Oirls Inflicting Punishments 
Affecting the Body. 





S-6 


6-7 


7-8 


8-9 


9-10 


lO-U 


11-12 


12-13 


13-14 






Boys Test I 


-8.1 

5.6 

18.7 

1.9 

-5.9 

-25.1 

42.4 

-4.9 


-12.4 
-23.5 
-22.1 
-18.3 

-12.1 
-23.8 
-32.3 
-21.0 


-7.0 
-22.2 
-34.3 
-18.3 

-15.0 
-40.2 
-41.7 
-28.7 


-7.9 
-11.3 
-32.0 
-13.6 

12.9 
0.0 
3.9 
6.8 


5.7 

-17.6 

26.6 

2.2 

-11.0 

2.9 

39.2 

0.2 


-14.8 
-48.8 
-32.5 
-26.2 

-14.7 
-39.5 
-12.8 
-19.8 


-20.4 
53.4 
-4.2 
-5.6 

-23.7 

-2.9 

-41.1 

-24.5 


-27.8 

-54.0 

-0.7 

-29.7 

-38.0 
-58.4 
-27.8 
-40.9 


-39.5 


Boys Test II 


-59.3 


Boys Test III 


-72.0 




-51.4 


Girls Test I 


-48.0 


Girls Test II 


-31.8 


Girls Test III 


-51.4 




-46.4 







The above table shows the rate of increase or decrease in the percentage of punishment • 
afifecting the body inflicted by boys and girls on each test and on the average of the three tests 
between the consecutive years from 5 to 14. The minus sign indicates a decrease in the rates 
where no sign is used an increase is understood. 

Table XXII. — Showing the Rate of Increase or Decrease from Year 
to Year in the Percentage of Boys and Girls Inflicting Punishments 
Affecting the Feelings and the Emotions. 



Years 


5-6 


6-7 


7-8 


8-9 


9-10 


10-11 


11-12 


12-13 


13-14 






Boys Test I 


14.2 

5.4 

-17.8 

-6.2 

40.0 

79.6 

-25.3 

2.7 


41.2 
32.2 
23.7 
29.7 

72.9 
57.9 
32.2 
47.4 


58.7 
18.7 
22.4 
24.2 

49.5 
46.1 
30.4 
39.5 


12.5 
7.2 
7.7 
8.4 

-18.6 

-3.6 

1.3 

-4.2 


-5.8 
9.6 

-5.0 
0.1 

27.1 

0.1 

-11.4 

-0.6 


29.2 
17.0 
10.8 
16.6 

11.2 

13.8 

6.5 

10.3 


20.0 

-13.3 

-3.0 

-2.4 

24.4 

-6.2 

13.3 

7.5 


21.4 

20.0 

3.8 

14.0 

28.8 

21.6 

5.1 

16.8 


— 7 5 


Boys Test II 


-4.3 


Boys Test III 


10.3 


Boys Average 


1 


Girls Test I 


16 6 


Girls Test II 


-0 6 


Girls Test III 


4.8 


Girls Average 


5 8 







The above table shows the rate of increase or decrease in the percentage of punishments 
affecting the feelings and the emotions inflicted by boys and girls on each test and on the 
average of the three tests between the consecutive years from 5 to 14. The minus sign in- 
dicates a decrease in the rate, where no sign is used an increase is understood. 



CHAPTER III 

The Purposes Activating the Subject 

We are here concerned to determine, first, whether the 
child is governed by a vague impulse or by a clearly defined 
purpose to be attained by the punishment he inflicts ; secondly, 
when this impulse, if present, is replaced hy a more or less 
clearly defined purpose. Accordingly the reasons for which 
the children tested inflicted the various forms of punishment, 
were tabulated. These reasons fall readily into five groups: 
(1) Because wrong was done, i. e., "Hit him because he 
copied"; (2) To prevent a repetition of the ofl^ense, i. e., "Take 
the paints away so she can't do it again"; (3) To cause pain, 
i. e., "Make him stand before the class, because it will make 
him feel ashamed"; (4) To administer justice, "An-eye-for-an- 
eye" form of justice, i. e., "Hit him because he deserved it" ; 
(5) To correct the ofl'ender, i. e., "Whip her and then she will 
know bettter next time." 92.7 per cent of the total number 
of answers received were included under these five heads; 5.6 
per cent gave no reason whatever for the punishments inflicted. 
Obviously, the impulse here was too vague to be expressed. 
The remaining 1.7 per cent gave a variety of reasons, sixteen 
different ones, for their attitude toward the offender, clearly 
showing that they either misunderstood what was required of 
them, that the offense was too slight to warrant their consid- 
eration of the matter or that the offender was not in fault. 

The first and second groups clearly show an im- 
pulse to restore the balance destroyed by tlie offense or to 
prevent its being destroyed in the future. These two groups, 
together with the 5.6 per cent who gave no reason for the 
punishments inflicted, we have grouped under the heading, 
An Impulse. The third and fourth groups seem to be 
prompted by a spirit of vindictiveness, while the fifth group 
reveals a genuine desire to correct the offender, the most 
perfect motive prompting a correction of any kind. Whether 
prompted by vindictiveness or by the more laudable motive of 
correcting the offender, obviously the children tested had a 
more or less clearly defined purpose in mind when they in- 

48 



A Pedagogical Study 



49 



flicted the punishments. Accordingly we have grouped these 
purposes under the heading, A Clearly Defined Purpose. 

AN IMPULSE 

It will be seen (Tables XXIII and XXIV) that from the 
fifth to the eleventh year, a greater percentage of all tested are 
impelled by An Impulse than by A Clearly Defined Purpose to 
be attained, but from the eleventh year on, this condition is 
reversed, and we find the greater percentage seeking to attain 
a certain end by means of the punishments inflicted. The first 
period is sub-divided into well marked divisions of three 
years each. The second period does not present evidence of 
sub-divisions, at least not irom the data on hand. 

On all three tests a greater percentage of boys at six are 
impelled to punish from An Impulse than at five years. 
On the average the increase is 13.2 per cent of the rate at five 
as against 34.6 per cent decrease in the rate governed by A 
Clearly Defined Purpose at the same age. At seven this 

Table XXIII. — Showing the Percentage of Children Impelled by 
An Impulse. 



Age in years 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


Boys Test I 

Boys Test II 

Boys Test III 

Boys Average. . . 

Girls Test I 

Girls Test II 

Girls Test III 

Girls Average . . . 


74.0 
61.1 
82.0 
72.3 

82.6 
82.6 
80.7 
81.9 


79.9 
78.4 
87.5 
81.9 

75.5 
78.0 
74.7 
76.0 


74.2 
79.0 
92.0 
81.7 

81.0 
84,1 
82.2 
82.4 


62.5 
69.7 
85.5 
72.5 

63.6 
83.5 
85.3 
77.8 


63.9 
75.0 
86.3 
75.0 

83.6 
70.5 
79.4 
77 8 


56.2 
60.9 
69.3 
62.1 

60.4 
70.6 
69.7 
66.9 


45.5 
40.4 
51.3 
45.7 

36.0 

47.7 
47.6 
43.7 


29.0 
37.7 
34.9 
33.8 

28.5 
24.4 
40.0 
30 9 


25.2 
29.2 
36.3 
30.2 

12.4 
17.5 
20.9 
16.9 


22.1 
31.4 
32.5 
28.6 

30.5 
25.3 
30.9 
28.9 



The above table shows the percentage of boys and girls from 5 to 14 years of age who were 
impelled by an impulse when they inflicted the various punishments on each test, and the 
average percentage reported on the three tests. 

Table XXIV. — Showing the Percentage of Children Governed by 
A Clearly Defined Purpose. 



Age in years 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


Boys Test I 

Boys Test II 

Boys Test III 

Boys Average . . . 

Girls Test I 

Girls Test II 

Girls Test III 

Girls Average . . . 


26.0 
30.5 
18.0 
24.8 

15.3 
17.2 
19.1 
17.2 


17.1 
20.3 
11.3 
16.2 

21.8 
21.8 
24.3 
22.6 


23.6 

19.6 

8.0 

17.0 

18.0 
14.5 
13.6 
15.3 


35.6 
27.3 
14.4 
25.7 

35.2 
15.4 
11. 5 
20.7 


32.9 
21.6 
10.5 
21 6 

15.3 
26.6 
19,6 
20.5 


41.8 
37.4 
30.5 
36.5 

36.6 
29.2 
30.1 
31.9 


51.6 
58.5 
47.6 
52.5 

60.3 
49.5 
50.4 
53.4 


68.7 
60.3 
61.0 
63.3 

67.2 
74.3 
60.0 
67.1 


73.8 
66.9 
63.5 
68.0 

84,0 
80.7 
78.9 
81 2 


66.6 
68.4 
67.2 
67.4 

64.4 
73.0 
68.8 
68.7 



The above table shows the percentage of boys and girls from 5 to 14 years of age who were 
goverded by a clearly defined purpose when they inflicted the various punishments on each 
test, and the average percentage reported on the three tests. 



50 



A Pedagogical Study 



increase is augmented on the second and third tests, while 
the first test shows a slight decrease from the rate at six, 
but not sufficiently great to reduce the average rate at seven 
more than 0.2 per cent below that at six and thus increase the 
average percentage governed by A Clearly Defined Purpose 



Percent 
100 



90 



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^56 7 8 9 JO II iZ 13 Vi 

A^e trhVeccrs 

Fig. IX.— Comparison of percentages of boys and girls impelled by an impulse on Test I. 

4.9 per cent of the average percentage at six. It would seem 
then that at six and at seven the boys show less evidence of 
the influence of reason than at five. Tables XXV and XXVI 
showing the percentage of children, regardless of sex, impelled 
by An Impulse and the percentage governed by A Clearly 
Defined Purpose give further evidence of this fact. 



A Pedagogical Study 



51 



Percent 
JOO 



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Ag'e in. Ye ccrs 

Fig. X. — Comparison of percentages of boys and girls impelled by an impulse on Tet t II. 



52 



A Pedagogical Study 



Percent 
100 



90 



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Fig. XI. — CompariaoD of percentages of boys and girla impelled by an impulse on Teat III. 



A Pedagogical Study 



53 



F7.(jr/rn XII 



Per Cent 

too 

90 
30 

70 
60 
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5 6 1 Q 9 10 n IZ 13 1^ 

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Fig. XII. — Comparison of the average percentages of boys and girls mpelled by an impulse. 















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54 



A Pedagogical Study 



Per Cent 
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Fig. XIII. — Comparison of percenlages of boys aud girls governed by a clearly defined purpose 

on Test I. 



A Pedagogical Study 



55 



Percent 
loo 








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5 6 7 3 9 ID n 12^ 13 I^ 

Fig. XIV. — Compari'-on of percentages of boys and girls governed by a clearly'defined purpose 

on Test II. 



56 



A Pedagogical Study 



P&rCent 
inn 








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Fig. XV. — Comparison of percentages of boys and girls governed by a clearly defined purpoM 

on Test III. 



A Pedagogical Study 



57 



PerCen 
lOO 



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Fig. XVI. — Comparison of the average percentages of boys and girls governed by a clearly 

defined purpose. 



58 



A Pedagogical Study 



Table XXV. — Showing the Percentage of Children Regardless of 
Impelled by An Impulse. 


8ex, 


Age in years 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


Test I 


78.3 
71.8 
81.3 
77.1 


77.7 
78.2 
81.1 
78.9 


77.6 
81.5 
87.1 
82.0 


63.0 
76.6 
85,4 
75.1 


73.7 
72.7 
82.8 
76.4 


58.3 
65.7 
69.5 
64.5 


40.7 
44.0 
49.4 
44.7 


28.7 
31.0 
37,4 
32.3 


18.8 
23.3 
28.6 
23.5 


26.6 


Test 11 


28,3 


Test III 


31.2 


Average 


28.7 







The above table shows the percentage of children of both sexes from 5 to 14 years of age 
who were impelled by an impulse when they inflicted the various punishments on each test 
and the average percentage reported on the three tests. 

Table XXVI. — Showing the Percentage of Children, Regardless of Sex, 
Governed by A Clearly Defined Purpose. 



Age in years 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


Test I 


20.6 
23.8 
18.5 
21.0 


19.4 
21.0 
17.8 
19.4 


20.8 
17.0 
10.8 
16.1 


35.4 
21.3 
12.9 
23.2 


24.1 
24.1 
15.0 
21.0 


39.2 
33.3 
30.3 
34.2 


55.9 
54.0 
49.0 
52.9 


67.9 
67.8 
60.5 
65.2 


78.9 
73.8 
71.2 
74.6 


65.5 


Test II 


70.7 


Test III 


68.0 




68.0 







The above table shows the percentage of children of both sexes from 5 to 14 years of age 
who were governed by a clearly defined purpose when they inflicted the various punishments 
on each test and the average percentage reported on the three tests. 

The girls show a substantial gain on all three tests at six 
over the rate at five, the average rate of gain being 31.3 per 
cent in the percentage governed by A Clearly Defined Pur- 
pose. This increase is accompanied by a loss of 7.2 per cent 
of the average rate at five in the percentage who were im- 
pelled by An Impulse. At seven, however, on each test there 
is a marked increase in the percentage impelled by An Im- 
pulse and an equally well marked decrease in the percentage 
governed by A Clearly Defined Purpose. Thus we see that 
at seven, when the reason is generally supposed to exercise 
considerable control over the actions, there is less evidence 
of its influence with the girls as well as with the boys, as has 
been pointed out, than at five or at six. Evidently some factor 
not shown from our data is acting as a retarding agent in 
the development of the judgment. 

At the beginning of the second part of the first period, i. e., 
the eighth year, the reason as a controlling factor seems, for 
the most part, to hold a more prominent place than heretofore. 
Both boys and girls show an increase, 51.1 and 35.2 per cent, 
respectively, of the average rate at seven in the percentage im- 
pelled by A Clearly Defined Purpose. The following year, how- 
ever, much of this ground is lost by the boys, who show a 
decrease of 15.9 per cent of the rate at eight, while the girls 



A Pedagogical Study 



59 



show but little change, 0.9 per cent decrease. Although both 
boys and girls show an increase in the tenth year in clearness of 
purpose, yet the average percentage impelled by An Impulse is 
still much greater than the average percentage governed by A 
Clearly Defined Purpose. Thus it will be seen that two points 
of retardation stand out in the development of the idea of pur- 
pose, between five and six and between eight and nine for the 
boys and between six and seven and possibly Ijetween eight and 
nine for the girls. Clearly the ninth year marks a nodal point 
in the development of the judgment of both sexes but especially 
in that of the boys. 

Table XXVII. — Showing the Rate of Increase or Decrease from Year 
to Year in the Percentage of Boys and Gdrls Impelled by An 
Impulse. 



Years 

Boys Test I . . 
Boys Test II. 
Boys Test III 
Boys Average, 

Girls Test I . . 
Girls Test II. 
Girls Test III 
Girls Average. 



5-6 


6-7 


7.9 


-7.1 


28.3 


0.7 


6.7 


5.1 


13.2 


-.2 


-8.5 


7.2 


-5.5 


7.8 


-7.4 


10.0 


-7.2 


8.4 



7-8 



-9 9-10 10-11 



-15.7 2.2 

-11.7 7.6 

-7.0 0.9 

-11.2 3.4 

-21.4-31.4 

-0.7-15.5 

3.7 -6.9 

-5.5 0.0 



-12.0 
-18.8 
-19.5 
-17.2 



-19.0 
-33.6 
-25.9 
-26.4 



-27.7-40.3 

0.1-32.4 

-12.2-31.7 

-14.0-34.6 



11-12 



-36.2 
-6.6 
-3.1 

-26.0 

-20.8 
-48.8 
-15.9 
-29.2 



12-13 



-13.1 

-22.5 

-4.0 

-10.6 

-56.4 
-28.2 
-47.7 
-45.3 



13-14 



-12.3 

7.5 

-10.4 

-5.2 

145.9 
44.5 
47,8 
71.0 



The above table shows the rate of increase or decrease in the percentage of punishments 
inflicted from an impulse by boys and girls on each test and on the average of the three tests 
between the consecutive years from 5 to 14. The minus sign indicates a decrease, where no 
sign is used an increase is understood. 

Table XXVIII. — Showing the Rate of Increase or Decrease from Year 
to Year in the Percentage of Boys and Girls Governed hy A Clearly 
Defined Purpose. 



Years 

Boys Test I . . . . 

Boys Test II . . . 

Boys Test III.. 

Boys Average 

Girls Test I 

Girls Test II..., 

Girls Test III.., 

Girls Average. 



5-6 



-34.2 
-33.4 
-37.2 
-34.6 

42.4 
26.7 
27.2 
31.3 



6-7 



38.0 

-3.4 

■29.2 

4.9 

-12.8 
-33.4 
-44.0 
-32.3 



46.6 
39.2 
80,0 
51.1 

95.5 
6.2 

■15.4 



8-9 



-7.5 
-20.8 
-27.0 
-15.9 

-56.5 

72.7 
70.4 



35.2! -0.9 



9-10 



27.0 

73.1 

190.4 

68.9 

139.2 

9.7 

53.5 

55.6 



10-1 1 



23.4 
56.4 
56.0 
43.8 

64.7 
69.5 
67.4 
67.3 



11-12 



33.1 

3.0 

28.1 

20.5 

11.2 
50.1 
19.0 
25.6 



12-13 



7.4 
10.9 
4.0 
7.4 

25.0 

8.6 

31.5 

21.0 



13-14 



-9.7 
2.2 
5.8 

-0.8 

-23.3 

-9.5 

-12.8 

-15.3 



The above table shows the rate of increase or decrease in the percentage of punishments 
inflicted from a clearly defined purpose by boys and girls on each test and on the average of 
the three tests between the consecutive years from 5 to 14. The minus sign indicates a de- 
crease, where no sign is used an increase is understood. 

A CLEARLY DEFINED PURPOSE 

Although from the ninth to the thirteenth years, inclusive, 
there is an ever increasing percentage of children of both sexes 
governed by A Clearly Defined Purpose, yet not until the 
eleventh year, the beginning of the second period, does the 



60 A Pedagogical Study 

rate exceed that governed by An Impulse. We may con- 
clude then, from the data at hand, that the transition has been 
made and the control so persistently held and so reluctantly 
relinquished by the instincts is now assumed by the reason. 
It will be seen from Tables XXIII and XXIV that the average 
percentage of boys impelled by A Clearly Defined Purpose at 
fourteen is less in absolute value than at thirteen, yet the 
relation between the average percentage impelled by An Impulse 
at thirteen is 44.4 per cent of the average percentage governed 
by A Clearly Defined Purpose at the same age, while at four- 
teen it is only 42.4 per cent. With the girls this relation at four- 
teen is more than twice what it was at thirteen, yet it cannot be 
concluded that the instincts have again assumed control. This 
condition may be due to one of two causes or to their combined 
effect. It will be seen from Table XXVIII that on the average 
the girls make three times the advance between twelve and 
thirteen that the boys do, thus bringing their average percent- 
age at thirteen up to 81.2 per cent, or 13,2 per cent more than 
the boys' pevcentage at the same age. Again, while they show 
a decrease of 15.3 per cent between thirteen and fourteen, yet 
their percentage then is higher than the boys' percentage 
at the same age; and, although on the average they show an 
increase between thirteen and fourteen of 71 per cent in the 
rate impelled by An Impulse (Table XXVII) as against a 
decrease of 5.2 per cent shown by the boys during the same 
period, yet their average percentage at fourteen is only 0.3 
per cent more in absolute value than the percentage shown 
by the boys at the same age (Table XXIV). The high emo- 
tional state at thirteen may have been the cause of the strong 
desire to correct the offender shown at thirteen, this being 
the chief element contributing to the increase at this time. 
When the emotional state has again become normal at four- 
teen, we find an increase of 2.3 per cent of the rate at twelve 
in the percentage controlled by A Clearly Defined Purpose 
with a corresponding decrease of 6.4 per cent of the rate at 
twelve in the percentage impelled by An Impulse. Un- 
doubtedly the thirteenth year marks a nodal point in the 
girls' emotional life, while the boys' emotions seem not to be 
a disturbing element at that time. A second cause may be 



\ A Pedagogical Study 61 

found in the fact that at fourteen there is scarcely one-half 
the number of pupils of either sex present at the test as at 
thirteen. Thus a slight increase or decrease in the number 
controlled by the different motives would cause a much greater 
increase or decrease in the percentage than if more were 
present. The decrease in the percentage governed by A 
Clearly Defined Purpose at fourteen is therefore more appar- 
ent than real with both boys and girls but especially with the 
boys. 



62 



A Pedagogical Study 



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A Pedagogical Study 



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offender on Test II. 



64 



A Pedagogical Study 



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-Comparison of percentages of boys and girls governed by a desire to correct the 
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A Pedagogical Study 



65 



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correct the offender. 



66 



A Pedagogical Study 



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on Teat I. 



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A Pedagogical Study 



67 



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on Test III. 



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vindictivenesB. 



68 A Pedagogical Study 



Conclusions 

We can hardly fail to note from the data at hand that the 
vast majority of all the children tested, regardless of age 
or sex, seem to lack the power of appreciating the gravity 
of an offense. Moreover the element of sex does not seem To 
affect in any marked degree either the character of the 
punishments inflicted or the motive governing their selec- 
tion. 

Our observations seem, on the whole, to substantiate the 
position of previously established transitional nodes and to 
emphasize a preparatory stage for each node. During these 
preparatory stages there appears to be a breaking up, as it 
were, of the conscious life. This is shown by a greater severity 
in the character of the punishments inflicted as well as by a 
retardation in the development of a clearly defined purpose in 
the infliction of the punishment. Aside from these periods of 
seemingly peculiar reversions, we find a more marked severity 
in the character of the punishments inflicted, during the 
instinctive stage than during either of the other stages. 

Unfortunately we have not convincing evidence upon which 
to base conclusions regarding the effect of heredity on the 
reaction to the suggestions of others. 

Apparently the instincts seem to hold sway over the motive 
governing the act longer than over the act itself. They seem 
to be more or less effectually dislodged as a controlling power 
in selecting the form of punishment much earlier than in 
determining the motive in punishing. This may be accounted 
for by the fact that imitation may easily exercise an influence 
in the case of the act itself, while it could not so easily 
influence the motive. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Philosophical, Historical, Educational and Scientific References 
Aristotle, Treatise on Rhetoric, translated by Buckley, T., London, 

1883. 
Baldwin, J., Mental Development in the Child and the Race, New 

York, 1906. 

Feeling and Will, New York, 1895. 

Bible, The: The Epistles of St. Paul. 

The Gospels. 

Catholic Encyclopedia, New York, 1907-14. 
Articles: "Education," by E. A. Pace. 
"Justice," by T. Slater. 
Chamberlain, A. F., The Child, New York, 1911. 
CoMPAYRli: G., L'Evolution Intellectuelle ct Mo7-ale de VEnfant, Paris 

1896. 
Donaldson, H., Growth of the Brain, London, 1895. 
EscHYLUs, Choephorae, translated by Potter, R., New York, 1836. 
Grote, G., History of Greece, New York, 1879. 
Hall, G. S., Adolescence, New York, 1904. 

Youth, New York, 1907. 

Children's Lies and Children's Collections, Worcester, Mass., 

1890. 

The Contents of Children's Minds on Entering School, New 

York, 1893. 

James, W., Principles of Psychology, New York, 1913. 

Talks to Teachers on Psychology, New York, 1899. 

KiRKPATRicK, E., Genetic Psychology, New York, 1910. 

The Individual in the Making, Boston, 1911. 

Fundamentals of Child Study, New York, 1898. 

Marshall, H., Instinct and Reason, New York, 1898. 
Morgan, L., Hahit and Instinct, London, 1896. 
Instinct and Experience, New York, 1912. 

Partridge, G., The Genetic Philosophy of Education, New York, 1912. 
Plato, The Republic, translated by Jowett, B., Oxford, 1908. 

The Dialogues, "Gorgias" and "Protagoras," translated by 

Jowett, B., New York, 1873. 

"Phaedo," New York, 1893. 

"Laws," New York, 1889. 

Preyer, W., Mental Development in the Child, translated by Brown, 
H., New York, 1893. 

The Mind of the Child, translated by Brown, H., New York, 

1888-89. 

69 



70 A Pedagogical Study 

QuAiN, J., Elements of Anatomy, Vol. I., Pt. I., London, 1892. 

Vol. III., Pt. I., London, 1893. 

Vol. IIL, Pt. IL, London, 1895. 

Vol. IIL, Pt. III., London, 1894. 

RicKABY, J., Moral Philosophy, New York, 1908. 

Shields, T. E., Philosophy of Education, Washington, 1917. 

Thomas Aquinas, Saint, Summa Theologica, Paris, 1887. 

Summa Contra Gentiles, Taurini, 1914. 

Tracey, F., Psychology of Childhood, Boston, 1909. 
Tyler, J., Growth and Education, Boston, 1907. 

WiLLMAN, 0., Didactic als Bildungslehre, Braunschweig, 1882-89. 

magazine articles 
Barnes, E., "Punishment as Seen by Children," Pedagogical Seminary, 

Vol. III., pp. 235-245, October, 1895. 
BoHN, Wm. E., "A Child's Questions," Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. 

XXIII., pp. 120-122, March, 1916. 
BuRNHAM, W. H., "Child Study as a Basis of Pedagogy," Report of 

Commissioner of Education, 1892-1893, Vol. I., p. 359. 
Gilbert, C. B., "Relation of Child Study to the Work of a City Super- 
intendent," National Educational Association Proceedings, 

1896, p. 881. 
Hall, G. S., "Child Study as a Basis for Psychology and Psychological 

Teaching," Report of Commissioner of Education, 1892, Vol. I., 

p. 357. 

"Notes on the Study of Infants," Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. 

I., p. 127, June, 1891. 

"Recent Advances in Child Study," Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. 

XV., p. 353, September, 1908. 

"The Study of Children," Report of Commissioner of Education, 

1892, p. 366. 

"Topical Syllabi for Child Study," Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. 

III., p. 6, October, 1894. 

"Notes on the Study of Infants," Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. 

I., p. 127, June, 1891. 

"Some of the Methods and Results of Child Study Work at 

Clark University," National Educational Association Proceed- 
ings, 1896, p. 860. 

Hancock, John A., "A Preliminary Study of Motor Ability," Peda- 
gogical Seminary, Vol. III., p. 9, October, 1894. 

Haskell, Ellen M., "Imitation in Children," Pedagogical Seminary, 
Vol. III., p. 30, October, 1894. 

Howard, Frank E., "Psychological Differences Between Children and 
Adults," Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. XX., p. 236, June, 1913. 

Johnson, G. E., "Education by Plays and Games," Pedagogical Semi- 
nary, Vol. III., p. 97, October, 1894. 



N A Pedagogical Study 71 

O'Shba, M. v., "Interests in Childhood," National Educational Asso- 
ciation Proceedings, 1896, p. 873. 

Pabkeb, F. W., "Work of the Illinois Society for Child Study," Na- 
tional Educational Association Proceedings, 1896, p. 844. 

Schallenberger, M., "A Study of Children's Rights as Seen by Them- 
selves," Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. III., p. 87, October, 1894. 

Thuebeb, C. H., "What Children Want To Do When They are Men and 
Women," National Educational Association Proceedings, 1896, 
p. 882. 

Van LiEw, C. C, "Child Study a Part of the Teacher's Art," National 
Educational Association Proceedings, 1896, p. 864. 

WiEiES, S. E., "A Preliminary Sketch of the History of Child Study 
in America," Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. III., p. 189, October, 
1895. 



LIST OF TABLES 

Page 

I. Showing the distribution of answers received 11 

II. Showing percentage of corporal punishments inflicted, by tests, age and 

sex 12 

III. Comparison of Tests I and II; I and III; II and III; as to the 

percentage of corporal punishments inflicted 13 

IV. Showing the rate of increase or decrease from year to year in the 

percentage of boys and girls inflicting corporal punishments 
between 5 and 14 years 18 

V and VI, Pt. I. Showing distribution of children present on each test, 

by age, sex and nationality 20 

V and VI, Pt. II. Showing distribution of children inflicting corporal 

punishments, by tests, age, sex, and nationality 22 

V and VI, Pt. III. Showing the percentage of corporal punishments in- 

flicted by tests, age, sex and nationality 26 

VII. Showing rank in numbers present and rank in percentage inflicting 

corporal punishments, by tests, sex and nationality 25 

VIII. Showing percentage of children inflicting brutal punishments 31 

IX. Showing number of children inflicting brutal punishments 32 

X. Showing number of children inflicting brutal punishment, by tests, age, 

sex and nationality 33 

XI. Showing the percentage of children inflicting punishments entailing 

loss 38 

XII. Showing the rate of increase or decrease from year to year in the 

percentage of boys and girls inflicting punishments entailing 
loss 38 

XIII. Showing the percentage of children inflicting punishments entailing 

restitution 40 

XIV. Showing the rate of increase or decrease from year to year in the 

percentage of boj's and girls inflicting punishments entailing 
restitution 40 

XV. Showing the percentage of children inflicting punishments entailing 

shame 41 

XVI. Showing the rate of increase or decrease from j'ear to year in the 

percentage of boys and girls inflicting punishments entailing 
shame 43 

XVII. ShoAving the percentage of children inflicting punishments entailing 

fear 44 

XVIII. Showing the rate of increase or decrease from year to year in the 

percentage of boys and girls inflicting punishments entailing fear 44 

XIX. Showing the percentage of children inflicting punishments affecting 

the body 46 

XX. Showing the percentage of children inflicting punishments affecting 

the feelings and the emotions 46 

XXI. Showing the rate of increase or decrease from year to year in 

the percentage of boys and girls inflicting punishments affecting 

the body 47 

72 



^ A Pedagogical S'^udy 73 

Page 

XXII. Showing the rate of increase or of decrease from year to year in the 

percentage of boys and girls inflicting punishments affecting the 
feelings and the emotions 47 

XXIII. Showing the percentage of children impelled by an impulse 49 

XXIV. Showing the percentage of children governed by a clearly defined 

purpose 49 

XXV. Showing the percentage of children, regardless of sex, impelled by 

an impulse 58 

XXVI. Showing the percentage of children, regardless of sex, governed 

by a clearly defined purpose 58 

XXVII. Showing the rate of increase or decrease from year to year in the 
percentage of boys and girls impelled by an impulse 59 

XXVIII. Showing the rate of increase or decrease from year to year in the 
percentage of boys and girls governed by a clearly defined 
purpose 59 



LIST OF FIGURES 

I. Comparison of percentages of corporal punishment inflicted by boys 

from 5 to 14 years of age on Tests I, II, III 14 

II. Comparison of percentages of corporal punishment inflicted by girls 

from 5 to 14 years of age on Tests I, II, III 15 

III. Comparison of percentages of punishment entailing loss inflicted by 

boys from 5 to 14 years of age on Tests I, II, III and the average 
percentages reported on the three tests S6 

IV. Comparison of percentages of punishment entailing loss inflicted 

by girls from 5 to 14 years of age on Tests I, II, III and the 
average percentages reported on the three tests 37 

V. Comparison of percentages of punishment entailing shame inflicted by 

boys from 5 to 14 years of age on Tests I, II, III and the average 
percentages reported on the three tests 41 

VI. Comparison of percentages of punishment entailing shame inflicted by 

girls from 5 to 14 years of age on Tests I, II, III and the average 
percentages reported on the three tests 42 

VII. Comparison of percentages of punishment entailing fear inflicted 

by boys from 5 to 14 years of age on Tests I, II, III and the 
average percentages reported on the three tests 45 

VIII. Comparison of percentages of punishment entailing fear inflicted by 

girls from 5 to 14 years of age on Tests I, II, III and the average 
percentages reported on the three tests 45 

IX. Comparison of percentages of boys and girls impelled by an impulse 

on Test 1 50 

X. Comparison of percentages of boys and girls impelled by an impulse 

on Test II 51 

XI. Comparison of percentages of boys and girls impelled by an impulse 

on Test III 52 

XII. Comparison of the average percentages of boys and girls impelled 

by an impulse 53 

XIII. Comparison of percentages of boys and girls governed by a clearly 

defined purpose on Test 1 54 

XIV. Comparison of percentages of boys and girls governed by a clearly 

defined purpose on Test II 55 

XV. Comparison of percentages of boys and girls governed by a clearly 

defined purpose on Test III 66 

XVI. Comparison of the average percentages of boys and girls governed by 

a clearly defined purpose 57 

XVII. Comparison of percentages of boys and girls governed by a desire 

to correct the ofifender on Test 1 62 

XVIII. Comparison of percentages of boys and girls governed by a desire 

to correct the offender on Test II 63 

XIX. Comparison of percentages of boys and girls governed by a desire to 

correct the offender on Test III 64 

XX. Comparison of the average percentages of boys and girls governed by 

a desire to correct the offender 65 

XXI. Comparison of percentages of boys and girls governed by a spirit of 

vindictiveness on Test 1 66 

XXII. Comparison of percentages of boys and girls governed by a spirit of 

vindictiveness on Test II 66 

XXIII. Comparison of percentages of boys and girls governed by a spirit 

of vindictiveness on Test III 67 

XXIV. Comparison of the average percentages of boys and girls governed 

by a spirit of vindictiveness 67 

74 



VITA 

Sister Mary Alma Kitts was born in Rensselaer Falls, New 
York, September 10, 1876. She received her elementary edu- 
cation and a part of her high school education in the public 
school of her native place. She was graduated from the Pots- 
dam State Normal School in 1896. She taught in the elemen- 
tary schools in New York State from 1896 to 1899. From 
1899 to 1901 she was assistant principal of the public high 
school, Hermon, New York. During 1902 she taught in the 
elementary public school at Chappaqua, New York. In 1903 
she entered the Novitiate of the Sisters of St. Dominic, New- 
burgh, New York. She was instructor in Mt. St. Marys 
Academy from 1905 until 1912, pursuing courses in private 
and at the Sisters Summer School, Catholic University. 
During 1912 she taught in Holy Angels Academy, Seattle, 
Washington. From September, 1913, until June, 1915, she 
was a student in residence at the Catholic Sisters College and 
the Sisters Summer School, completing the requirements for 
the degree of Bachelor of Arts in August, 1914. In June, 
1915, she received the degree of Master of Arts from the 
Catholic Sisters College. She was permitted to work in 
absentia from September, 1915, until June, 1916. From Sep- 
tember, 1916, until June, 1917, she was again a student in 
residence at the Catholic Sisters College. In 1917 she was 
appointed inspectress of the parochial schools in charge of the 
Sisters of St. Dominic of Newburgh, New York, during which 
time she collected and tabulated the material forming the body 
of the foregoing thesis. 

75 



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